China's Involvement with Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
SuGe*
Abstract: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is the most influential economic cooperation mechanism in the Asia-Pacific region. China is not only a participant but also a staunch supporter of and a major contributor to economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region.China has always upheld the spirit of Asia-Pacific partnership,leaving its footprints deeply engraved in the historical development of APEC.Through its involvement with APEC, China has not only furthered its own development, but also made important contributions to regional and even global economic development. Over the years, the practice of APEC, centering on the cooperative vision represented by the Bogor Goals,has greatly improved the liberalization and facilitation of trade and investment and has raised the level of economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region. With the deadline for achieving the Bogor Goals approaching, the direction that such cooperation will take after 2020 has become a focus of popular concern. The international structure is now undergoing profound changes unseen in the past century.As unilateralism and protectionism affect the globalization process,APEC faces both opportunities and challenges in the near future. To draw up a future cooperation blueprint together with the other economies involved,China has to forge ahead bravely through all kinds of weather.
Keywords: Asia-Pacific economic cooperation,APEC,China’s diplomacy
China’s involvement with regional economic cooperation started from the Asia-Pacific region. APEC is the first regional economic cooperation organization China joined, opening a doorway for China at an important historical juncture to participate in economic globalization and regional economic integration.With this year marking the 30th anniversary of the founding of APEC, this paper intends to provide a retrospective of China’s footprints engraved in the difficult path that APEC has travelled,wishing to provide a helpful reference for the great historical endeavor of China’s major-country diplomacy along with the characteristics of the new era of cooperation.
The Beginnings and Growth of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
I.The birth of APEC
APEC is an open organization for coordinating economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region, and is the highest, most extensive and most influential economic cooperation mechanism in the region. The concept of Asia-Pacific economic cooperation arose in the 1960s and 1970s, and was jointly promoted by the Pacific Trade and Development Conference(PAFTAD) and the Pacific Basin Economic Council (PBEC).At the end of the 1970s, the normalization of relations between China and the US, as well as China’s pursuit of reform and opening up policies, gave rise to a new international structure in the Asia-Pacific region and opened a bright prospect for economic cooperation. In 1980, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference (PECC),1 Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference was renamed to Pacific Economic Cooperation Council(PECC)in 1992. which was jointly initiated by the Australian Prime Minister, Malcolm Fraser, and the Japanese Prime Minister, Ohira Masayoshi, proposed for the first time the concept of open regionalism, which laid a solid foundation for Asia-Pacific economic cooperation. With the promotion of PECC, the first APEC ministerial meeting was held in Australia in 1989. In January of that year, the Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke, while visiting South Korea,proposed to call a ministerial meeting to discuss issues relating to boosting regional economic cooperation. In November of the same year, the first APEC ministerial meeting was held in Canberra, Australia, involving Australia, the United States, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand, Canada and six ASEAN member states,and declaring the birth of APEC.1 PECC,“The Evolution of PECC: The First 25 Years,”Singapore: Pacific Economic Cooperation Council, 2006; Mei Ping ed., Zhongguo yu taipingyang hezuo—PECC 25 nian de lichen yu tansuo [China and Pacific Economic Cooperation: 25 years’development and exploration of PECC](Shijie zhishi chubanshe[World Affairs Press],2006).
In November 1991, the third APEC ministerial meeting, convened in Seoul, South Korea, adopted the Seoul Declaration, which stated the main tenets, principles and objectives of the organization: interdependence,shared benefits, upholding an open and multilateral trade regime and reducing trade barriers within the region. The original intention of setting up APEC was to boost ties among various economies within the Asia-Pacific region in a core spirit of openness, gradualism, voluntarism,consultation,development,mutual benefits and common interests.Over the years, APEC has mainly focused on the liberalization of trade and investment, facilitation of trade and investment, and economic and technological cooperation. These are generally known as the“three pillars,”although liberalization and facilitation of trade and investment are sometimes combined,thus reducing the three pillars to“two wheels.”
II.China becomes a member of APEC
In November 1991, China joined APEC together with Chinese Taipei and Hong Kong (known as Hong Kong (China) from July 1, 1997) under the One China principle and differentiating sovereign states from regional economies. APEC was the first regional economic cooperation organization that China had joined. Ever since, China has actively and deeply participated in cooperation in various fields of the organization,playing an important and constructive role in promoting the development of APEC. Chinese leaders have participated in all of the APEC Economic Leaders’Meetings and delivered speeches on these occasions, making positive contributions to boosting economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region. China has always firmly supported economic globalization and the multilateral trade system,promoted trade liberalization and facilitation,and strengthened economic and technological cooperation with other member economies of APEC, with its role and influence growing with each passing day in regional and global economic development.
III.The growth of APEC
From the end of the Cold War to the beginning of the 21st century,the economies in the Asia-Pacific region had gradually mitigated and narrowed their disagreements and contradictions due to the need to liberalize trade and investment, thus providing a broader space for the development of APEC. APEC has now grown into a systematic international organization with an increasingly clear objective, working range, admission framework and organizational structure. Being the most influential official forum for regional economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific,APEC is now composed of 21 member economies. APEC accounts for 40 percent of the world’s population, about 56 percent of the world’s GDP and about 48 percent of the world’s trade volume.As the development potential of the Asia-Pacific has been gradually released,APEC’s role in global economic activities has grown more and more important.
APEC and China’s Participation
I.The first APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting
The APEC ministerial meeting was upgraded to the APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting in 1993. In November of that year, the first APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Seattle, USA, with the theme of deepening the“big family”spirit in the Asia-Pacific and striving for stability,security and prosperity for the region.The leaders participating in the meeting solemnly pledged their commitment to the theme,thus pointing out politically the direction for APEC development. Mr. Deng Xiaoping, based on a meticulous calculation of the situation, then raised a pointed question: what kind of world shall we bring into the 21st century?1 Wang Yusheng,“Zhongguo dui APEC de gongxian he yingxiang [China’s contribution to and influence over APEC],”People’s Network, October 28, 2014,accessed January 4,2019,http://finance.people.com.cn/n/2014/1028/c390230-25925270.html. Accordingly, the then Chinese President Jiang Zemin delivered a keynote speech entitled“What Kind of World We Shall Bring into the 21st Century”to the meeting,pointing out that APEC should be an open, flexible, lively and invigorating, and relatively loose economic cooperation forum or consultation body rather than a closed and institutionalized economic bloc, and proposing four principles that should be followed, namely mutual respect, equality and mutual benefits,openness to each other, and common prosperity. In all, Jiang Zemin participated in nine APEC Economic Leaders’Meetings,from 1993 to 2001.
II.The Bogor Goals
The second APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Bogor,Indonesia, in November 1994, and adopted the APEC Economic Leaders’Joint Resolution Declaration (abbreviated as the Bogor Declaration),setting out the Bogor Goals. The Bogor Goals proclaimed that APEC would implement trade and investment liberalization and facilitation under two timetables: the developed member economies should complete the process by 2010, and the developing member economies by 2020. The different timetables reflected APEC’s status as a regional organization composed of both developed and developing economies at different development levels and with different adaptabilities. As such, the member economies will naturally have varying levels of interest in the process of trade and investment liberalization and facilitation, thus making it difficult for them to reach consensus on such sensitive issues as tariff concessions and investment protection. China made five principle suggestions for the future cooperation of APEC: first, mutual respect and consensus through consultation; second, gradual advance in due order and steady development; third, openness to each other rather than remaining exclusive;fourth,extensive cooperation and reciprocity;and fifth,reducing arrears to attain common prosperity.
(3)NFC手机支付和二维码支付都属于移动支付，生物识别和无感支付不需要用到手机直接支付，具有广阔应用前景。现阶段单一的生物识别很难满足城轨快速支付的要求，上海城轨的人脸识别只是在车站门禁系统中实现应用，生物识别和电子标签相融合的多重识别识别技术将成为今后发展方向。无感支付未来将利用手机APP把虚拟账户关联实体账户，自动识别用户ID，并在关联的实体账户中自动扣除费用。
将、、、这4个工具添加到快速访问工具栏。利用它们将多个形状组合成新的形状。：两种形状的区域都留下。：留下两形状共同重合的部分，减掉没重合的部分。：选定形状分先后顺序，先选的形状是被减形状，后选的形状是要减掉的部分，从先选定的形状中减掉被后选的形状遮挡住的部分后留下的部分。：留下两形状没重合的部分，减掉两形状重合的部分。举例说明：用3个相同大小的圆形组合绘制成弧形三角，再重新拼合成花形以表现内容。如图6所示，图中的点划线为辅助线，可在组合前删除。
如图3所示，与细胞对照组相比，ACR组NSC中PKA蛋白表达下降41.6%（P＜0.05），PKC蛋白表达下降29.4%（P＜0.05），而p-NF-H蛋白表达升高66.4%（P＜0.05）；CP组三者均无明显变化。与ACR组相比，ACR+CP组的PKA蛋白表达升高68.9%（P＜0.05），PKC蛋白表达升高34.4%（P＜0.05），而p-NF-H蛋白表达下降18.6%（P＜0.05）。与CP组相比，ACR+CP组PKA，PKC和p-NF-H蛋白表达无明显变化。
III.The APEC way
As to the impacts wrought by the Asian financial crisis, New Zealand,acting as the host for APEC in 1999, proposed an initiative to strengthen market functions. In September of that year, the 7th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting held in Auckland, New Zealand, recommended that developed and developing members should accomplish paperless trade and ratify the APEC business travel card program by 2005 and 2010 respectively. China pointed out that APEC was facing two major tasks,namely, to unswervingly safeguard peace and stability in the Asia-Pacific region and to further promote regional economic growth.
古人在空间与陶瓷陈设上也着实花费了许多的心血与智慧，但是却仍然有着一定的缺点与不足之处。处于新的时代，陶瓷艺术在公共空间中的运用，不能一味照搬古人的智慧与思想，而应该与时俱进的融合现代社会的生活形态和审美标准，并且结合西方当代的陶艺理念，以达到在兼具造型美观与合理实用的基础上，做出更加丰富的式样来介入空间，表达与了解自我。
In November 1997, the APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting held in Vancouver,Canada,made a commitment to improve and perfect the unilateral action plans on a year-to-year basis, and admitted Vietnam, Russia and Peru into the organization. China once again positively affirmed the APEC way,believing it to be an important guarantee for member states/economies to strengthen cooperation, and made important proposals to boost exchanges in science and technology and technology cooperation and transfer. China also indicated that it would strive,through its own practical actions,to promote the development of economic and technological cooperation and trade and investment liberalization in the Asia-Pacific region.
近年来体育舞蹈在我国高校发展十分迅速，越来越多的大学生开始选择学习体育舞蹈项目。国际大学生体育联合会（FISU）已于2017年5月与世界体育舞蹈联合会签署协议，协议中接纳体育舞蹈成为一项体育项目，为体育舞蹈项目有可能成为未来的正式比赛项目奠定了先决条件[1]。
IV.The impacts brought about by the Asian financial crisis
In September 2007, the 15th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting held in Sydney,Australia, mainly focused on the issue of global climate change and adopted the Sydney Declaration on Climate Change, Energy Security and Clean Development. China proposed that APEC should effectively coordinate economic development with environmental protection by taking a high degree of responsibility for humanity and the future, and stated that China was more than willing to work with all APEC member economies to build a clean,harmonious,vigorous,and sustainable Asia-Pacific.
当天黄昏，李霸崖用新得的钓竿在自家荷塘垂钓，自娱自乐。连钓三条不大不小的，都放生了。最后，他钓到一直放养在荷塘里的那条大青鱼，那不是今年放的，已养了好几年了。大鱼挣扎得厉害，虽说李霸崖力大过人，但钓鱼的方法与常人无异，也是端着钓竿抵住自己上腹部借力，同时左右晃动钓竿遛鱼，以消耗鱼的体力，等鱼精疲力竭之后再把它拉到岸边，拿网兜套捕。每当鱼挣扎得厉害，垂钓者都会下意识地握紧钓具，李霸崖也不例外。当他第三次用力握住钓竿时，感觉中指的凹陷部位滑动了一点点，以此同时，耳中听到古怪的声响，“哧”的一下，接着是“嘭”的一声，随后他就扑通摔倒在地。
In November 1996, the APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Subic, Philippines, which called on all parties concerned to attach importance to economic and technological cooperation, incorporated private sectors into the APEC process, and established the APEC way proposed by China. The APEC way proposed by China included: recognizing diversities and importance of flexibility, gradualness and openness; adhering to the principles of mutual respect, equality and mutual benefits, consensus through consultation, and voluntariness; and combining unilateral actions with collective actions.The growth in the strength of APEC thereafter has benefited a great deal from this unique way and the direction to which it pointed.
郭店楚简全浊与次浊声母字通假的例证仅有7例。由我们的统计可知，除去同音字组之外，通假字与本字之间，同发音部位清：清跟浊：浊字例共有27组，占近22%；而同发音部位清浊通用之例有97组，占78%，清浊通用与清浊分明的比例为4∶1。
2002 saw the APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting being held in Los Cabos, Mexico, where participants discussed expanding the benefits arising from economic growth and development cooperation,so as to reach APEC’s long-term targets, and adopted the APEC Regional Safety Trade Initiative.China proposed that APEC should conform to the trends of the time by encouraging extensive cooperation in promoting regional and global economic stability and growth, upholding the open and multilateral trade regime, and boosting counter-terrorism cooperation. Meanwhile, China made a commitment to play a positive and constructive role in promoting global and regional peace and development.
APEC and China’s Rising Influence
I.The Shanghai Consensus
In November 2010,the annual APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Yokohama, Japan, and discussed issues relating to regional economic integration and new strategies for economic growth. Four documents were adopted, including the Leaders’Declaration: Yokohama Vision in Bogor and Post-Bogor Era. China expressed its expectations of APEC’s development,namely that APEC should further promote trade and investment liberalization and facilitation, speed up regional economic integration, elevate the quality of economic growth, and strengthen economic and technological cooperation, while boosting the autonomous development capacity and intrinsic economic dynamics of its member economies.
In November 2000, Bandar Seri Begawan, the capital of Brunei,hosted the 8th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting, which approved the New Economic Action Agenda, highlighting the role of the“new economy,”chiefly centered on information technology, in global economic development, and ratified the application of the Electronic Unilateral Action Plan. To promote economic and technological cooperation among members, China proposed that member economies should strengthen cooperation in scientific and technological development, application and popularization to open a new space for international economic and technological cooperation by fully utilizing the new developments in science and technology in a spirit of joint development and shared benefits.
In 2003, the APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting held in Bangkok,Thailand, stressed that input should be increased into the knowledge-based economy, financial system and economic structural reforms, while pledging to conduct practical cooperation in security. The then Chinese President Hu Jintao pointed out that APEC should adopt a new thinking and a new approach: to strengthen mutual trust so as to maintain regional stability in the Asia-Pacific, promote a coordinated socio-economic development, and step up the mutual opening of markets to improve the multilateral trade system. Hu Jintao attended ten APEC Economic Leaders’Meetings,from 2003 to 2012.
若振动为自由振动且忽略阻尼，即动激励载荷F=0，可以通过无阻尼自由振动的情况求解系统的振动特性。此时系统的动力学方程为：
3.以鼓励为主，不可求全责备。学生做错或答得不全纯属正常，不能盲加批评。熄了他学习兴趣之火是最大的损失。我常和差生讲，你动了脑筋就是最大的收获，也是最佳答案。因此，他们设的、抄的句也常有我五角星的奖赏。
The APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting held in 2004 in Santiago,Chili, reiterated a shared aim to promote economic structural reform while proposing to conduct regional cooperation to face terrorism. China expressed three goals in a spirit of cooperation: first, effective measures should be taken to maintain the momentum of global and regional economic development; second, efforts should be made to deepen mutual beneficial cooperation and promote the building of a big Asia-Pacific family; and third, cooperation should be strengthened in fighting against terrorism so as to create a regional environment of peace and stability.
II.The Busan Roadmap
A year after the Bogor Goals were set up, the third APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was convened in Osaka,Japan,adopting the Osaka Action Agenda, which refined the action plans for promoting the Bogor Goals. The Osaka Action Agenda set trade and investment liberalization and facilitation and economic and technological cooperation as the two wheels for cooperation within APEC, demanding member states/economies to formulate unilateral and collective action plans to promote regional trade and investment liberalization. China made five proposals for economic cooperation:first,to set sustained economic development in the Asia-Pacific region as the fundamental objective for economic cooperation; second, to create a favorable external environment for the sustained economic growth of the developing member states; third, to uphold the principle of independence; fourth, to respect differences by maintaining a rational pace for the process of trade and investment liberalization; and fifth, to lay equal store in trade and investment liberalization and economic and technological cooperation. China also announced practical plans to support the Bogor Goals, including the commencement of drastically lowering its overall import tariffs(by no less than 30 percent)from 1996 onwards.
Affected by the 9/11 incident, the following four APEC Economic Leaders’Meetings all included counter-terrorism in their agenda.However,some major changes took place in the 2005 APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting, which resumed talks on the Bogor Goals. The 13th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was called in Busan, South Korea in November of that year, and completed the mid-term review of the Bogor Goals while formulating the Busan Roadmap to further realize the Bogor Goals. China expressed that all member economies should join in their efforts to cope with the imbalance of international economic development and to jointly promote the healthy development of the multilateral trade system. China also reiterated its willingness to strengthen communication and cooperation with all member economies to build a harmonious world with enduring peace and common prosperity.
In November 2006, the 14th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, and worked out an action plan for implementing the Busan Roadmap. China expressed that APEC should play a larger role in actively supporting the multilateral trade system,striving to achieve the Bogor Goals, and promoting economic and technological cooperation. China also proposed to set up an APEC-wide port service network, and committed a donation worth USD 2 million to the APEC support fund to be used in promoting economic and technology cooperation.
In November 1998, the 6th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and made the following decisions: to establish a social security network, to improve the financial system, to strengthen trade and investment flows, to develop science, technology and human resources, and to boost ties with industrial and business circles.China proclaimed, in the midst of the Asian financial crisis, that it would not be depreciating its currency so as to maintain the overall situation of international economic development. China also earmarked USD 10 million for establishing a China APEC Science and Technology Industry Cooperation Fund to support the Agenda for Science and Technology Industry Cooperation in the 21st Century and the Skills Development Action Plan adopted by APEC.
III.The impacts of the international financial crisis
In November 2008, the 16th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Lima, the capital of Peru, and included the international financial crisis sweeping the world at the time on top of its agenda. The meeting held an in-depth discussion over how the international community would cope with the crisis and issued a statement on the international economic and financial situation.China introduced the series of measures it had taken within its ability in responding to the international financial crisis,believing these measures were conducive not only to China’s economic development,but also that of the world.
In November 2009, the 17th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Singapore, and focused on the agenda of how to promote economic growth, the multilateral trade system and regional economic integration, as well as how to cope with climate change. China made its position clear,that it had always attached great importance to and participated in all kinds of cooperation within APEC,and that APEC should continue to boost trade and investment liberalization and facilitation, promote economic and technological cooperation to achieve greater results, and step up the socioeconomic development of the region.
Although the Asian financial crisis slowed the development of APEC,China’s development injected it with new positive energy. In October 2001,China hosted the 9th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting in Shanghai,which included counter-terrorism cooperation into its agenda as the 9/11 tragedy had just occurred prior to the meeting. Chinese leader Jiang Zemin delivered a speech entitled “Strengthen Cooperation to Face New Challenges of the New Century”to the meeting, in which he proposed that APEC should unswervingly uphold the multilateral trade system, boost economic and technological cooperation, and strive to achieve the Bogor Goals. The meeting approved the Shanghai Consensus, intended to speed up the realization of the Bogor Goals, which agreed on the following: first,to set a policy framework facing the new century for APEC so as to broaden APEC’s future development prospects; second, to further define APEC’s strategy for reaching the Bogor Goals, as well as to expand and update the Osaka Action Agenda to allow some member economies, as pathfinders, to pursue trade policies conducive to promoting the development of the new economy and apply the APEC trade facilitation principle at an earlier date; and third, to strengthen APEC’s executive mechanism, unilateral action plan review mechanism, and capacity building of human resources. This is a milestone contribution of China to the development of APEC, manifesting the rise of China’s status and influence in the organization.
In November 2011, the Honolulu APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting focused on such issues as economic growth in the Asia-Pacific, regulation cooperation and energy security under the theme of a closely connected regional economy, and issued the Honolulu Declaration: Toward a Closely Connected Regional Economy. China made it known that it would remain steadfast in participating in regional and global economic cooperation, and promoting trade and investment liberalization and facilitation. During the meeting, the US proposed talks on the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) in an attempt to increase its dominance over the Asia-Pacific region.
In September 2012, the Vladivostok APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting focused on issues relating to trade and investment liberalization and facilitation as well as how to ensure food security, establish reliable supply chains and strengthen cooperation for innovation-driven growth.China indicated that APEC had promoted regional economic integration through various means, and that China was willing to continue to deepen cooperation with other member states to make new and greater contributions in promoting Asia-Pacific regional and global development and prosperity,and improving the welfare of the people of the world.
APEC and China’s Outstanding Role
I.A new historical starting point
In October 2013, the 21st APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was held in Bali, Indonesia, under the theme of Resilient Asia-Pacific, Engine of Global Growth, with its agenda focusing on the realization of the Bogor Goals, sustainable growth with equity, and connectivity within the Asia-Pacific region. Chinese President Xi Jinping attended the summit for the first time, an event that received a great deal of attention. He delivered an important speech to the meeting, entitled“Give Full Play to the Leading Role of the Asia-Pacific, and Maintain and Advance an Open World Economy.”On the severe challenges facing world economic recovery, he proposed that economies must work together to jointly promote the economic integration of the Asia-Pacific, in which member economies should not stand in each other’s way or cancel each other out, be devoted to open development while opposing trade protectionism, and maintain a firm confidence of and inject new impetus into the multilateral trade regime.He pointed out that APEC was entrusted with an important mission to promote regional and global development and, at this new historical starting point,nations should join together in an effort to promote APEC to play a greater role.
II.China’s outstanding role at the side of Yanqi Lake
In 2014, China successfully held the 22nd APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting at the side of Yanqi Lake in Beijing under the theme of Shaping the Future through Asia-Pacific Partnership, while focusing on three priorities, namely advancing regional economic integration; promoting innovation-driven development, economic reform and growth; and strengthening comprehensive connectivity and infrastructure development.President Xi Jinping emphasized in his speech delivered to the meeting that in facing the new situation, economies of the Asia-Pacific should promote regional economic integration in a deep way, create an open Asia-Pacific economic structure highlighting innovation-driven development, common growth and fused interests, and jointly build an Asia-Pacific partnership featuring mutual trust, inclusiveness, cooperation and win-win outcomes, so as to add impetus to regional and global economic development. President Xi Jinping made a keynote speech to the APEC Business Leaders’Summit under the title of“Seeking Endurable Development and Jointly Building an Asia-Pacific Dream,”in which he expressed that China’s development would offer great opportunities and benefits to the Asia-Pacific and the world,and that China would be willing to work together with other Asia-Pacific economies to make the good Asia-Pacific dream come true. The meeting concluded with fruitful results, issuing the 22nd APEC Economic Leaders’Declaration: Beijing Agenda for an Integrated, Innovative and Interconnected Asia-Pacific and the Statement for APEC’s 25th Anniversary: Shaping the Future through Asia-Pacific Partnership, and confirming and initiating the Beijing Roadmap for APEC’s Contribution to the Realization of the Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP). In addition, the meeting endorsed other important documents, including the APEC Accord on Innovation-Driven Development, Economic Reform and Growth, the APEC Connectivity Blueprint for 2015-2025, and the APEC Strategic Blueprint for Promoting Global Value Chain Development and Cooperation. China also made clear its other cooperation agendas: to advocate for and support the establishment of the Silk Road Fund and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, to boost APEC’s institutional capacity-building, and to offer training opportunities for developing member states. As a result, the Beijing Agenda has become one of the more important documents written into APEC history after the Bogor Goals,as the Chinese Solution has left a historical print for Asia-Pacific cooperation.
In November 2015, the Philippines hosted the 23rd APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting, which was largely an extension of that held a year earlier in Beijing. This meeting focused on issues relating to attaining inclusive growth through economic integration and promoting development driven by a sustainable and resilient economy.The meeting issued a Leaders’Declaration under the title of“Building Inclusive Economies, Building a Better World:A Vision for an Asia-Pacific Big Family,”and adopted policy papers such as“Strategy for APEC to Strengthen High Quality Growth and Framework for APEC’s Service Cooperation.”During the meeting, Chinese President Xi Jinping delivered a speech to the APEC CEO Summit under the title of“Giving Play to the Leading Role of APEC and Meeting the Challenges Facing the World,”in which he mentioned“four no-changes”in China’s economic development trends and“three will-not-changes”in China’s opening up policy. As to the future development of APEC, he proposed“four insistences”: promoting reform and innovation, building an open economy,implementing development agendas,and boosting connectivity.
At this time, world trade was finally showing some signs of warming up after a four-year slump, but counter-globalization thinking and protectionism remained strong. The world economy was still in recovery,while the sustainable development of the Asia-Pacific was faced with multiple challenges. In this context, the 24th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting, held in November 2016 in Lima, Peru, was focused on regional economic integration and high quality growth, food security, and the development of small- and medium-sized enterprises and human capital.This meeting made a major step in advancing the FTAAP, for which China played an important role. President Xi Jinping made a number of points in his speech: first, the need to unswervingly lead the process of economic globalization; second, the need to unswervingly upgrade the level of the Asia-Pacific open economy (noting that, as the FTAAP process was initiated two years earlier in Beijing, efforts should be made to accomplish it as soon as possible); third, unswervingly breaking the bottlenecks affecting regional connectivity, and implementing the ten-year connectivity blueprint adopted by the APEC Beijing meeting (noting that, as China is actively advancing its Belt and Road Initiative, China is more than willing to synergize its Belt and Road Initiative with the development strategies and cooperation initiatives of all countries concerned); and fourth, the need to unswervingly forge a new structure highlighting reform and innovation to create a driving force for APEC to lead the world economy.
After the 19th National Congress of the CPC was concluded, the first major diplomatic trip made by the Chinese supreme leader was for the 25th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting held in Da Nang, Vietnam, in November 2017. On the APEC stage, China has proactively operated its international relations and positively promoted its major-country diplomacy. The Da Nang meeting was held under the theme of Creating New Dynamism, Fostering a Shared Future, and proposed cooperation in four major areas: boosting sustainable, innovation-driven and inclusive growth; deepening regional economic integration; boosting the competitive and innovative capacities of micro-,small-and medium-sized enterprises in the digital age;and promoting food security and sustainable agriculture. At that moment, global economic integration was facing severe tests, with the world economy still remaining in recovery, while certain disagreements existed among the APEC economies.President Xi Jinping, actively promoting concepts of a new partnership and a community with a shared future,pointed out during the meeting that all of the Asia-Pacific economies should rise to the occasion and engage in concrete actions to lead a new round of global development and prosperity. In his speech delivered to the APEC CEO Summit, President Xi Jinping made four proposals: to build an open economy, seek innovation-driven growth, boost connectivity, and strengthen the inclusiveness of economic development. In expressing its responsibilities as a major power, China was becoming more and more confident in proposing Chinese solutions.
III.At a crossroad of historical development
In November 2018, the 26th APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting was convened at Port Moresby,the capital of Papua New Guinea,and focused on issues relating to the digital economy, connectivity, and inclusive growth.At that moment, unilateralism and protectionism were continuously affecting the global multilateral trade system,the environment for global development was facing multiple risks and uncertainties, the global governance system was undergoing a profound reshaping, and the world structure was undergoing accelerated change. President Xi Jinping mentioned the word“crossroad”in his speech on two important occasions during the meeting.In his speech to the APEC CEO Summit, under the title of“Jointly Charting a Course toward a Brighter Future,”President Xi Jinping said,“The changes we are encountering in the world are unseen in a century. Changes create opportunities, but more often than not, they are accompanied by risks and challenges. Mankind has once again reached a crossroad. Which direction should we choose? Cooperation or confrontation? Openness or closing one’s door?Win-win progress or a zero-sum game?The interests of all countries and indeed, the future of mankind hinge on the choice we make.”In his important speech delivered to the Economic Leaders’Meeting, entitled“Harnessing the Opportunities of the Time and Jointly Seeking Asia-Pacific Prosperity,”President Xi Jinping said,“We should follow the underlying trend of economic globalization and prevail over difficulties as they arise.”To respond to the call of our time, President Xi Jinping made four proposals:persisting in advancing regional economic integration, pursuing innovationdriven growth, improving the connectivity network, and forging a closer partnership. Under each proposal, China has a respective measure: China will pursue with resolve continued reform across the board and an open-door policy,build a“Digital China”and seek cooperation,work with all countries involved under the principle of consultation and collaboration for shared benefits to pursue the Belt and Road Initiative, and jointly build a community with a shared future in the Asia-Pacific. At this historical crossroad,China’s voice resounds loudly.
President Donald Trump was absent from the APEC meeting,and the US Vice President Mike Pence was in attendance, peddling the Indo-Pacific rather than the Asia-Pacific. For the first time in APEC’s history, the meeting issued only a Chair’s Statement of the Informal Leaders’Meeting, and concluded without a Leaders’Declaration. As for the reasons, Prime Minister Peter O’Neil of Papua New Guinea explained that the chief disagreement lay in whether WTO reform should be mentioned in the declaration. The Chinese State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi believed that this was by no means accidental. The major reason was that some APEC economies insisted that other economies accept their solutions to evade blame for their unilateralism and protectionism, while refusing to lend a willing ear to the reasonable demands to modify the text that were raised by China and some other member states.This deed ran contrary to the principle of consensus through consultation upheld by APEC.1 “APEC weihe meiyou fabiao xuanyan, baxin zongli shuochu zhenxiang [Why APEC meeting was concluded without a declaration, Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea told the truth],”Global Network, November 20, 2018, accessed March 3,2019,http://news.ifeng.com/a/20181120/60168223_0.shtml.
The Changing World and the Future of APEC
Presently,the world is undergoing profound changes unseen in a century,with the balance of power evolving in a process from quantitative change to qualitative change, as economic integration is deepening, political multipolarization is expanding, and science and technology are advancing with each passing day. However, unilateralism and protectionism are seriously affecting the international multilateral trade system. Although the overall economic situation in the Asia-Pacific is taking a turn for the better, it also faces the pains wrought by the conversion of old and new kinetic energy, and such challenges as the intensifying fragmentation of regional cooperation.Asia-Pacific economic cooperation is once again at a historical crossroad.
I.China and APEC
Initially after joining APEC, China was a beginner and participant.China has always attached importance to and actively participated in various fields of APEC, and its footprints are deeply engraved in multiple major processes. Today, China’s influence in APEC continues to grow, as it is not only a beneficiary of APEC cooperation, but more of a staunch supporter of and major contributor to that cooperation. China has achieved its own development through joining APEC cooperation, while making important contributions to regional and world economic development.During the Asian financial crisis, China insisted on not depreciating the RMB and maintaining rapid economic growth, thus playing an important role in stabilizing the regional economy of the Asia-Pacific. APEC has become a major arena in which China operates its international relations and actively promotes its major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics. China has upheld fair and just international relations, and always followed, protected and insisted on the basic principle of equal partnership jointly worked out by APEC member economies. China has always promoted economic and technological cooperation among APEC economies and balanced development of trade and investment liberalization and facilitation, while rendering strong support to specific cooperation agendas. Moreover, China has proposed initiatives on the macro level to promote global and Asia-Pacific economic cooperation,brought the question—what kind of world shall we bring into the 21st century?—into APEC discussions, contributed a unique“APEC model,”and raised the concepts of a new type of international relations and community with a shared future for humanity, which manifested not only China’s responsibility as a major power, but also its confident role as a pacesetter. Nonetheless, as an ancient Chinese saying goes: wind damages the flourishing trees in the forest. China is facing persistent strategic compression from the only superpower of the world in the context of a global political landscape undergoing profound changes and the balance of power being upset, as the latter is caught in severe strategic anxiety and views the former as a challenger. China must be well prepared over the long-term for the development of trade frictions with the US, whose spillover effects will certainly add uncertainties to the prospect of APEC cooperation. For this, all parties must remain clear-headed, cope with things properly,prepare for the worst,and look for the best.
II.The future trend of APEC development
The Asia-Pacific region is the world in miniature, and a region with the greatest economic growth dynamics in the world. Looking back on its history, APEC was founded at the end of the Cold War and alongside the rise of economic globalization.Over the 30 years since its founding,APEC has always been the trailblazer, forerunner and pacesetter of regional economic integration. The Bogor Goals set in 1994 have pointed out the direction for the development of Asia-Pacific cooperation over the following 25 years. APEC has persisted in development on two wheels,trade and investment liberalization and facilitation as well as economic and technological cooperation, and has never stopped improving the level of regional economic integration. APEC has upheld the cooperation model highlighting voluntariness and consensus through consultation, while promoting the Asia-Pacific to become the largest geo-economic land mass with the greatest vitality and growth potential in the world. APEC has converged the major developed and developing economies of the Asia-Pacific region, thus assuming a character of great diversity. APEC has practiced the cooperation concept of inclusiveness and universality, while advocating connectivity, supporting multilateral trade regimes, and boosting global value chain and supply chain cooperation.Openness brings about progress,while seclusion ends up in backwardness.The development of economic globalization has brought all of the economies of the world closer together. In a context in which economic globalization is suffering setbacks,the international community is expecting APEC to not forget why it started, fly high the banner of inclusive economic globalization, continue to play a leadership and coordination role, and persist in improving the breadth and depth of regional economic cooperation.
With the deadline of the Bogor Goals approaching, the direction that APEC will be heading after 2020 has become a topic of global interest. Presently, the rules of world economic governance are in the process of being reshaped, which has intensified the game among the powers concerned,of which the contest over WTO reform stands out most prominently. Evidence reveals developed nations beginning to halt rightful transfers to emerging economies,and to place limits on the development space of the latter to capitalize on existing international regimes. During the 2018 APEC Economic Leaders’Meeting, the US went so far as to act as a rule setter for WTO reform.Of late,with the global value chain,supply chain and industrial chain constantly updating and reshaping,Asia-Pacific economic cooperation is growing in breadth and depth, while the multiple and large-scale parallel multilateral and sub-regional free trade arrangements may have dispersing or“spaghetti bowl”effects on regional cooperation. Taking the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) as a model, the US has forcefully promoted a rule-oriented economic cooperation instead of the tariff-oriented one in the Asia-Pacific region, Japan has stepped up implementation of the Comprehensive Progressive Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) and, at the same time, the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) and the more extensive Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific(FTAAP)have made slow progress.
III.Discussion of a vision beyond 2020
How to depict a new vision for APEC development and realize the Asia-Pacific dream of common development, prosperity and progress, in order to provide long-term guidance for APEC development, remains a major topic facing the Asia-Pacific economies. In 2018, APEC set up the Vision Group after 2020, which has initiated practical discussions to draw upon all useful opinions. As a major APEC advisory body, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) has also made several proposals for drawing a new blueprint for Asia-Pacific economic cooperation.1 In late September 2018, the International Seminar on Integration of the Asia-Pacific and Building of a Free Trade Area was successfully held in Sanya, Hainan,under the promotion of CNCPEC.
The first of these proposals is to reinforce the guiding principles by,first, upholding the APEC model that highlights voluntariness, consensus through consultation, and a flexible and progressive approach; second,maintaining openness and inclusiveness, and practicing an open regionalism;third,looking far ahead,and fully manifesting the significance of the time and the forward-looking nature of APEC cooperation; and fourth,maintaining the consistency and continuity of APEC agendas.
确定8个方向的边界点后，将其依次连接所得到的不规则图形即可认为是船舶领域。但由于交通系统的复杂多变，同时为使船舶领域能够便于应用到水上交通安全中，需要对该不规则图形进行拟合。本文利用最小二乘法以椭圆方程对所得到的一系列边界点进行拟合，根据椭圆一般方程Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0，可求得各个参数，即得到船舶领域边界和大小。
The second proposal is to re-clarify the mission.APEC is expected to moderately expand its mission range, shifting from a single mission of boosting trade liberalization to a comprehensive one that promotes inclusive and sustainable socio-economic development toward the end of establishing an Asia-Pacific community with a shared future, while at the same time working to protect the international multilateral trade regime,formulate cooperation goals for the new era, and play a leading role in coordinating structural reform and macro-economic policies.
The final proposal is to set priorities. Regional economic integration and the FTAAP should be the primary areas for future cooperation, as they are the unaccomplished tasks of the Bogor Goals as well as the major and long-term objectives of APEC. Active efforts also should be made to implement the APEC Connectivity Blueprint and the APEC Internet and Digital Economy Roadmap, and to promote inclusive and sustainable development.
One can enjoy a grand sight by climbing to a greater height. At this critical moment when the Asia-Pacific economy is transitioning from the old to the new kinetic energy, it is necessary to stand at a historical height,keep the interests of the Asia-Pacific peoples in mind, and make joint efforts to promote the Asia-Pacific cooperation in the new era. When you hoist the sails to cross the sea, you will ride the winds and cleave the waves. Looking forward, the great ship of the Asia-Pacific economic integration will surely ride the winds and cleave the waves in a safe and sound journey toward the glorious destination—an Asia-Pacific community with a shared future.
施工部门在高速公路桥梁施工过程中，要结合施工环境的基本参数和情况，对温度参数予以收集和管理。温度出现变化后，不仅梁体会随之发生改变，伸缩缝宽度也会异常，这些变化都会对安装定位数值产生影响。基于此，技术部门要对安装定位数值进行设计的过程中，充分考量数据参数、伸缩缝宽度设计的条件等，分别在最高温和最低温状态下展开宽度设计，避免因为定位管理不准确造成的伸缩缝高温过度膨胀以及低温过度拉长的问题，真正维护高速公路桥梁施工项目的整体质量和道路桥梁的使用寿命，也为后续质量监督管理工作的全面落实和优化奠定基础，促进管理体系的和理升级和优化[2]。
* Su Ge is the Chairman of China National Committee for Pacific Economic Cooperation (CNCPEC), Co-Chair of Pacific Economic Cooperation Council(PECC), and former president and professor of China Institute of International Studies, whose research mainly focuses on China’s diplomacy and issues relating to the Asia-Pacific.
(edited by Zhao Jinfu)
标签：Asia-Pacific论文; economic论文; cooperation论文; apec论文; China'论文; s论文; DIPLOMACY论文; China National Committee for Pacific Economic Cooperation (CNCPEC)论文; Pacific Economic Cooperation Council(PECC)论文; China Institute of International Studies论文;