Globalization and Cosmopolitanism in the East and West ❋
Ding Zijiang❋❋
Abstract: Through a diachronic and synchronic comparison of cosmopolitanism in the East and West, this paper examines the evolutionary pattern of classical Chinese cosmopolitanism from the perspective of today’s globalization. It first introduces the history,modern interpretations, and six transformational models of Western cosmopolitanism.Next, it critiques arguments concerning cosmopolitanism in modern China, with special attention to Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao’s cosmopolitanism and Sun Yat-sen’s criticism of cosmopolitanism, and explicates contemporary China’s new tianxia doctrine. The author argues that the Confucian political and ethical views of the world endow Confucianism with a universal authority based on a structure of morality, ritual, and highly secular cultural aesthetics. The traditional Chinese thinkers attempted to combine regionalism, metaphysics,ethics, aesthetics, and the Chinese utopian idealism with universalism and cosmopolitanism.
Keywords: globalization, cosmopolitanism, universalism, new tianxia doctrine, comparison of cosmopolitanism in the East and West
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among peoples, companies, and governments; it is a dynamic process driven by international trade and investment, assisted by information technology. This process has implications for the environment, culture,political systems, economic development and prosperity, as well as for the physical and mental health of human beings around the world. Globalization is mainly characterized by social, cultural, and economic integration, but international conf l icts are also an important part of the history of globalization. Cosmopolitanism is a term often used to describe world citizenship: an enlightened person believes that he or she belongs to a common humanity or world order, not a specific set of customs or traditions.1 Lee Trepanier, “The Postmodern Condition of Cosmopolitanism,” in Cosmopolitanism in the Age of Globalization:Citizens without States, eds. Lee Trepanier and Khalil M. Habib (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011), 211. Cosmopolitanism examines the relationships between nations, groups, or individuals and how they achieve moral,cultural, economic, and political unity in a globalized society. Cosmopolitanism can be seen as the norm of globalization, which strengthens the promotion of cosmopolitanism.The expressions of globalization and cosmopolitanism are quite different in various kinds of literature. In terms of mobility and inclusion, the relationship between these two and politics and immigration has also been treated differently in different sources.However, there is both continuity and separation between them.2 Jack Barbalet, “Globalization and Cosmopolitanism: Continuity and Disjuncture, Contemporary and Historical,”Journal of Sociology 50, no. 2 (2014). The manifestations of cosmopolitanism are pluralistic, multi-dimensional, and multi-faceted, with different varieties, and each era has its own unique version, which shows the moral attitude, political life, philosophical thought, and religious aspirations of humans over the millennia.3 Paul Seaton, “European Dreamin’: Democratic Astigmatism and Its Sources,” in Cosmopolitanism in the Age of Globalization: Citizens without States , 305. The word cosmopolitan implies that the world itself can be regarded as a political community.However, this ideal is full of contradictions.4 L. Joseph Hebert Jr., “Tocqueville, Cicero, Augustine, and the Limits of the Polis,” in Cosmopolitanism in the Age of Globalization: Citizens without States , 277. Through internationalization, we can verify and demonstrate the relationship between global justice and universal justice. There seems to be some value of universal justice in the actual world. The interconnections between global justice, cosmopolitanism, and universalism are related and can transform.
阀1处产生触发指令时实际换相线电压已经到达过零点，两极电压为正，阀1立刻导通，ca开始换相。同理，阀4处产生触发指令时，为负，阴极电压小于阳极电压，立即导通，与上半桥一致。因此，当0<σca<α时,实际触发角αca=α-σca；
Economic, cultural, and political systems that were once bound by the borders of nation-states are increasingly globalized. Whether debates over globalization split apart depends on the extent to which they form a basis for ideology. Some scholars have defined four major focal points that can provide this ideological basis, taking philosophical debates between globalists and nationalists as well as those between universalists and situationists as raw material for activists in the public sphere: border permeability, distribution of authority at various levels, normative dignity of communities, and methods used for decisionmaking. An ideal combination of these four parts can be labeled as cosmopolitanism, that is, a combination of the arguments for globalism and universalism, while another kind of communitarianism combines nationalist and situationist arguments. In public debates, the more political and ideological these two ideal strains are, the more a new split will emerge in debates on globalization.5 Michael Zürn and Pieter de Wilde, “Debating Globalization: Cosmopolitanism and Communitarianism as Political Ideologies,” Journal of Political Ideologies 21, no. 3 (2016): 280—301. Other scholars have also revealed that the globalization of the world has gained new vitality in the context of the current global economic restructuring,which makes the concept of nationalism become backward. However, there are three basic misunderstandings in this confrontation between globalization and nationalism: (1)the belief that nationalism is related to the socio-economic base and that the globalized economy must therefore strive to globalize societies, making states and nationalism obsolete; (2) the belief that cultural adaptation, that is, the increasing standardization of cultural forms, inevitably or automatically translates into the assimilation of ethnic minoritism; (3) the idea that global cosmopolitan culture is, to some extent, the ideal that human society should reflect or aim at.6 Margaret Moore, “Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and Minority Nationalism,” in Minority Nationalism and the Changing International Order , eds. Michael Keating and John McGarry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). The advent of globalization has led scholars to acquire a new awareness of democracy, citizenship, and political community. Because civic ideals conf l ict with the sovereign nation-states that originally developed, they can no longer cope with the pressures of globalization, and such conceptions of democracy must be changed in order to continue to play a role in this era of globalization. Faced with challenges from researchers, democratic theorists are forced to reconstruct democracy and citizenship because national society has lost its importance. However, the cosmopolitan theorists also have a series of problems of their own in the process of globalization.7 Lee Trepanier, “The Postmodern Condition of Cosmopolitanism,” in Cosmopolitanism in the Age of Globalization: Citizens without States, 211—228.
A Historical Review of Western Cosmopolitanism:From Socrates and Kant to Habermas [Refer to page 21 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Socrates’s ideas were based on universalism and cosmopolitanism. He considered himself a member of the universe, and his philosophical investigations extended to all human beings.According to Plato’s retelling, Hippias, the wise man, said: “I regard you all as kinsmen and intimates and fellow-citizens by nature, not by law: for like is akin to like by nature”(Plato, Protagoras 337c7--d3). The Stoic School argued that all men are an embodiment of universal values and should live in fraternity and help each other in a brotherly way.Diogenes, for example, claimed to be not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world. Stoic cosmopolitanism inf l uenced Christianity and even modern political thought.Early Christianity upheld the ideals of cosmopolitanism and St. Paul declared, “There is no difference between the Greeks and Jews, the circumcised and uncircumcised, the barbarians,the Scythians, the slaves, or the free” (Col. 3:11). Since Socrates, many great thinkers in the West have been more or less inf l uenced by this moral and social ideal. These universal rights and mutually agreed views have been a constant subject of thought, illustrating an important transition from classicism to modernism.
Kant demonstrated cosmopolitanism in a revolutionary way. For him, cosmopolitanism can be defined as “a model in which all of humanity’s original abilities can be developed.”He supported internationalized law, whereby individuals have the right to be “citizens of the earth” and not citizens of a particular country. Kant conceived of a multi-ethnic country that included all the peoples of the world, that is, a nation of all the peoples of the world united into civitas gentium . For him, the commonality between the various peoples can lead evils such as the violation of rights to exist in no corner of the world. Thus the idea of world civil rights is likely to become a reality. One can think of oneself as a citizen of the world,that is, a citizen of the world beyond the perceptual world. He believed that,
Purposeless savagery held back the development of the capacities of our race; but finally,through the evil into which it plunged mankind, it forced our race to renounce this condition and to enter into a civic order in which those capacities could be developed. The same is done by the barbaric freedom of established states. Through wasting the powers of the commonwealths in armaments to be used against each other, through devastation brought on by war, and even more by the necessity of holding themselves in constant readiness for war, they stunt the full development of human nature. But because of the evils which thus arise, our race is forced to find, above the (in itself healthy) opposition of states which is a consequence of their freedom, a law of equilibrium and a united power to give it effect. Thus it is forced to institute a cosmopolitan condition to secure the external safety of each state.8 Immanuel Kant, “Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View,” in On History , trans. Lewis W.Beck (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1963), https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/universalhistory.htm
As a result, people are forced to establish a universal condition to ensure the external security of each country. There is no precedent in the history of the world for international governments.Although this government at present exists only as a rough outline, nevertheless in all the members there is rising a feeling which each has for the preservation of the whole.This gives hope finally that after many reformative revolutions, a universal cosmopolitan condition, which Nature has as her ultimate purpose, will come into being as the womb wherein all the original capacities of the human race can develop.9 Ibid. In Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch , the idea of a negotiated government and a world federation was proposed. He stressed that the laws of states should be based on a federation of free states and that the laws of the citizens of the world depend on generally friendly conditions. Only a worldwide state can guarantee permanent peace. Kant’s exploration of worldwide rights is widely regarded as the philosophical origin of modern cosmopolitanism. According to his deontological methodology and concept of reason, the international community of peace for all humankind is a principle of worldwide rights. This principle expresses an obligation to regulate relations between all states for the purpose of promoting tourism and trade.10 Immanuel Kant, “Metaphysics of Morals,” in Kant’s Political Writings , ed. Hans Reiss, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1970), 172. Kant systematically expounded cosmopolitanism in the political and philosophical sense. From a theoretical point of view, he defined some of the most relevant aspects of general universality, that is, rational understanding transcending self-interest and the attempt to establish a universal order.
Jürgen Habermas tried to re-establish Kant’s cosmopolitanism. For him, the development of society provided new challenges for Kant’s theory of worldwide rights and justice.Habermas combined universalism, cosmopolitanism, and global justice as his general theoretical framework. He proposed an innovative theoretical basis that provided a welldesigned rationale for a constitutional and universal global order, that is, for why a universal principle should be implemented.11 Armin von Bogdandy and Sergio Dellavalle, “Universalism Renewed: Habermas’ Theory of International Order in Light of Competing Paradigms,” German Law Journal 10, no. 1 (2009): 29. On his view, (1) An international order should be moral, civil, judicial, legitimate, political, pluralistic, democratic, consultative, institutional,international, transnational, and post-state; (2) The emergence of public international law is at the heart of a just global political order; (3) A global political order is a continuation of democratic forms based on human rights; (4) If a political community is based on the universal principles of democratic constitutions, it still forms a collective identity, and in a sense, based on the enlightenment of its own history and the context of its specific form of existence, it interprets and realizes these principles; (5) In the absence of a common moral basis, institutions that go beyond the state must seek a less demanding basis for legitimacy in the form of an international consultative system, which would be an intelligible process of consideration of the various public organizations in international civil society; (6) At the global level, regulated political institutions may be effective only if they adopt governance without a government, and even human rights with legal effects must be constitutionalized in the international system.
本次调查显示医务人员对消毒与灭菌的认知正确率最低，其次为院感传播知识认知。部分医务人员对消毒剂的分类、消毒剂消毒效果的影响因素以及消毒和灭菌方法的选择等院感相关知识了解甚少，手卫生和医院污物处理的认知正确率也较低。说明大多数医院医务人员只注重在医疗业务操作过程中的院感防控，而与医疗业务操作无直接关联的院感环节容易被忽视，这些被忽视的环节常常是导致院感事件发生的诱因，加强这些环节的院感防控意识刻不容缓。
Since the turn of the twentieth century, people have offered modern interpretations of Western cosmopolitanism. Arnold J. Toynbee conceived that regional countries must not always be a permanent source of war, or a political machine that dominates the population.People are willing to give their greatest loyalty to all mankind, not to regional countries and their institutions.12 Arnold J. Toynbee and Daisaku Ikeda, “D emise of the Local State” [地方国 家消亡论], in Choose Life: A Dialogue [展望二十一世纪——汤因比与池田大作对话录], trans. Xun Chunsheng 荀春生, Zhu Jizheng 朱继征, and Chen Guoliang 陈国梁 (Beijing: International Cultural Publishing Company, 1985), 211. Generally speaking, universalism, cosmopolitanism, and global justice are interconnected. For example, the concept of binding law or jus cogens can be linked to the assumption of general social communication. This encompasses all participants in international relations, including states and individuals understood in a cosmopolitan approach, as it brings together the core requirements of legitimate public action around the world. The idea of a global political community is articulated in the theory of international relations. We can see that Western cosmopolitanism has applied six transformational models: (1) from natural to artificial, such as Hippias; (2) from theological to secular, such as Epictetus and the Thomist; (3) from teleological to deontological, such as Kant; (4) from nationalism to anti-nationalism, such as Diogenes; (5) from institutional or constitutionalist to the individual, such as Habermas; (6) from the philosophical to the political, such as Kant and Habermas.
Controversies over Cosmopolitanism in Modern China [24]
Traditional Chinese thinkers tried to examine cosmopolitanism through metaphysics,ethics, aesthetics, and utopian imagination. They shifted the discussion of cosmopolitanism from geography to ethical politics. The conceptualization of Chinese cosmopolitanism had four dimensions: (1) to construct a supernatural and superhuman concept through some kind of ontological or cosmological imagination; (2) to construct a concept of natural existence through the geographical environment; (3) for the ruling class to construct a concept of human existence through the centralized domination of the whole society and all its lands; (4) to construct a concept of moral virtue, ethical value, and utopian ideal through self-realization, self-perfection, self-purification, and self-transformation.
Among modern Chinese thinkers, Kang Youwei 康有为 (1858—1927) stated cosmopolitanism rather profoundly. Liang Qichao 梁启超 (1873—1929) praised Kang’s The Book of Grand Union [大同书]: “His ideals in the book are quite in affinity with those in today’s cosmopolitanism and socialism, and yet his ideas thus expounded are more profound.”13 Liang Qichao 梁启超, An Introduction to Learning in the Qing Dynasty [清代学术概论] (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1998), 82. Xunzi said,
“回首向来萧瑟处，也有风雨也有晴”。改革开放40年是中国制造业从低端走向中高端的关键发展阶段，在这个伟大的历史变革过程中，我们的制造业通过大浪淘沙涌现了一批有影响力的优秀企业。正是他们的坚守、成就与贡献，推动了行业转型升级，引领了行业发展方向，从而真正促进了中国制造业大踏步从高速度增长向高质量发展迈进。
By the beginning of the twenty-first century, a new tianxia doctrine was coming into being. For instance, in The Tianxia System: An Introduction to the Philosophy of a World Institution [天下体系——世界制度哲学导论], Zhao Tingyang 赵汀阳 analyzed thetianxia concept and system of the Zhou dynasty (1046—256 BCE), so as to put forward the idea of reconsidering China, and even reconsidering the world, and trying to plan the future world’s political institution as an “all under Heaven system.”29 Zhao Tingyang 赵汀阳, The Tianxia System: An Introduction to the Philosophy of a World Institutions [天下体系——世界制度哲学导论] (Nanjing: Jiangsu Education Press, 2005), 7. According to the book, the unique Chinese tianxia view is the most profound theoretical preparation for the world institution.30 Ibid., 13. The core concept of the tianxia view is to see the world from the perspective of tianxia and to regard all under Heaven as one family, meaning to take the world as the public political space and common resource of mankind, and to think about the political problems of the world on the scale of the world. Only by understanding the world as an indivisible a priori unit will it be possible to see and define the long-term interests, values,and responsibilities that belong to the world. China’s tianxia model can fully achieve a top-down transmission of political governance, so it can be used as a method to end the chaos of today’s world. The tianxia model recognizes only political uniformity and the universality of human nature, and no longer recognizes any other principles, in particular the universality of peoples and ideologies (especially religions), and opposes the imposition of any particular values onto people, thus affirming the free existence and natural survival or perishing of all cultures.31 Ibid., 4, 5, 14, 15. According to the intention of this book, this tianxia system can finally solve the problem of conf l ict that Kant’s theory of peace could not resolve, such as Samuel Huntington’s theory of the clash of civilizations.
Liang Qichao was arguably a thinker who talked most about Chinese-style cosmopolitanism, the view of tianxia 天下 (all under Heaven). He elaborated this concept from multiple perspectives, such as the views of regions, history, knowledge, ethics, and law. It is significant that Liang associated cosmopolitanism with the tianxia view. He once said,
There is nothing more important in the world today than the rise and fall of China,and the biggest problem that the great statesmen have to deal with in their minds is the problem of China. Therefore, the problem of China is no less than that of the world, and the nationalism of China is no less than cosmopolitanism.17 Liang Qichao, “The Difficulty to Reply” [答客难], in Selected Works of Liang Qichao [梁启超文集], comp. Chen Shuliang 陈书良 (Beijing: Yanshan Press, 2009), 514.
Since the world (tianxia ) is the weightiest burden, only the strongest person will be able to bear it. Since it is the largest thing, only the most discriminating will be able to allocate social responsibilities properly. Since it is the most populous entity, only the most enlightened will be able to make it harmonious. Only a sage is capable of fully meeting these three conditions. Thus, only a sage is capable of being a True King. A sage thoroughly perfects himself in the Way and is a person of complete refinement, so he can be the balance scale of judgment for the whole world. (Xunzi , “Rectifying Theses” [正论])
The spread of cosmopolitanism in China occurred generally in the twentieth century,around the time of World War I and the rule of the Northern Warlords (1912—1927). At that time, the German nationalist war policy was criticized, the corruption of the Northern Warlords led the Chinese people try to find another way, and thus cosmopolitanism became an important choice in China’s ideological and cultural circles. Liang Qichao,Cai Yuanpei 蔡元培 (1868—1940), Chen Duxiu 陈独秀 (1879—1942), Dai Jitao 戴季陶(1891—1949), Hu Shi 胡适 (1891—1962) and other famous scholars appreciated or even had long-term adherence to cosmopolitanism. Some foreign scholars such as Bertrand Russell also preached cosmopolitanism in Chinese classrooms. Under the inf l uence of such masters in academic circles, young students who admired Western civilization worshiped cosmopolitanism and preached it fervently. In the Chinese cultural circles of this period,cosmopolitanism and anarchism echoed each other, and nationalism was gradually marginalized and finally faded from the view of many intellectuals.18 Qu Jianjun 屈建军 and Lu Jinlong 路金龙, “Cosmopolitanism in Sun Yat-sen’s Mind” [孙中山心目中的“世界主义”], on The Revolution of 1911 website, last modified March 22, 2013, http://www.xhgmw.org/html/zhuanjia/chengguo/2014/0716/5801.html
Sun Yat-sen 孙中山 (1866—1925) also believed that cosmopolitanism in Europe was only promoted in the modern world, and that we should keep and expand this spirit. At the same time, it must be noted that cosmopolitanism should be included in the major issues of Marxism, and Marxism, socialism, and communism with Western culture as their background were linked with cosmopolitanism.19 Sun Yat-sen 孙中山, “Three Principles of the People” [三民主义], in book II of Selected Works of Sun Yat-sen [孙中山选集] (Beijing: People’s Press, 1950), 622. The British, Russians (Bolsheviks),and May Fourth New Culture Movement (1919) opposed nationalism and promoted cosmopolitanism. However, cosmopolitanism had existed in ancient China as long as two thousand years ago, namely in the tianxia doctrine. Sun went on with his criticism:“China’ s new youth, advocating a new culture and opposing nationalism, is bewildered by this (cosmopolitan) truth. However, if nationalism is not consolidated, cosmopolitanism cannot develop. Cosmopolitanism is implied in nationalism.”20 Sun, “Three Principles of the People,” 632. Sun Yat-sen on the one hand vigorously advocated “the whole world as one community,” while on the other hand he criticized cosmopolitanism. He stated that cosmopolitanism does not really apply to China. “Because of China’s weakness and prolonged loss of sovereignty, it is advisable to seek prosperity and strength first, so that the world’s powerful countries dare not despise China. . . . Only then can we advocate cosmopolitanism.”21 Sun Yat-sen, Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen [孙中山全集], vol. 5 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985), 558—559. Since imperialism wants to preserve its special status, it promotes cosmopolitanism and makes the whole world obey. “If nationalism does not exist, when cosmopolitanism develops, we cannot survive and we are going to be eliminated.”22 Sun,Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen , vol. 9, 216—217. Sun Yat-sen further stressed that the status of national freedom and equality should be restored before it is worth discussing cosmopolitanism.23 Ibid., 223—226.
In 1931, Lei Haizong 雷海宗 (1902—1962) divided the cosmopolitanism of the time into three categories: cosmopolitanism, internationalism, and pacifism. The first category included Herbert G. Wells, Thorstein Veblen, Norman Angell, and Karl Marx, the second Woodrow Wilson, and the third Leo Tolstoi, Roman Rolland, and Bertrand Russell.26 Lei Haizong 雷海宗, An Outline of Western Cultural History [西洋文化史纲要], collated and introduced by Wang Dunshu 王敦书 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Press, 2001), 294—295.
观察组患者的生理功能、生理职能、社会功能、角色功能、活力、躯体疾病、精神状况、情感状况以及总体健康评分均高于对照组的上述各项评分，差异具有统计学意义（P＜0.05），见表2。
生物除臭系统于2017年1月18日投运，经2个多月的运行，O池能够保持微负压运行，各O池自从加盖密封后现场闻不到异味。臭气收集母管负压基本保持在0.6 kPa左右。玻璃盖板结构未发生变形，各O池密封状况良好。
In the 1990s, some scholars believed that China should abandon the nationalist ideology from oppression and replace it with the diplomatic philosophy of the traditionaltianxia doctrine. They argued that “in this era of accelerated globalization, after China’s revival and equal status with the rest of the world, Chinese culture should return to culturalism and the tianxia doctrine, what is today called globalism.”27 Li Shenzhi 李慎之, “Globalization and Chinese Culture” [全球化与中国文化], Pacific Journal [太平洋学报], no. 2 (1994). There was also the argument that China “needs a cultural shift from nationalism to the tianxia doctrine, or a revival of the tianxia doctrine.”28 Sheng Hong 盛洪, “China’s Possible Contribution: To Implement Moral Idealism in International Relations” [中国可能的贡献：在国际关系中实践道德理想], Strategy and Management [战略与管理], no. 1 (1996).
Some scholars have speculated that Sun Yat-sen mainly criticized Britain and Russia.Russell’s ideas against nationalism and for cosmopolitanism resonated with young students who worshipped Western civilization and began to aspire to socialism. That Sun Yat-sen’s several speeches on cosmopolitanism against anti-nationalism coincided in chronological order with Russell’s speeches and the publication of his related works may ref l ect a certain causal connection.24 Sang Bing 桑兵, “Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism: Sun Yat-sen’s Response to the New Cultural School” [世界主义与民族主义——孙中山对新文化派的回应], Modern Chinese History Studies [近代史研究], no. 2 (2003). Although Russell believed in pacifism and cosmopolitanism and opposed all forms of nationalism, including national self-determination, the development path he designed for China, namely to be unified and independent, implement national socialism, and develop a moral culture based on the absorption of the outstanding elements of Western civilization, was broadly in line with Sun Yat-sen’s ideas. Later, Russell in the Business Group Incident clearly supported Sun Yat-sen,25 Feng Chongyi 冯崇义, Russell and China: An Encounter of Western Thought in China [罗素与中国：西方思想在中国的一次经历] (Beijing: The Joint Publishing Press, 1994), 29. hoping that Sun Yat-sen’s moderate socialism could be successful in China.
In his book A Study of Confucius’s Institutional Reforms [孔子改制考], Kang Youwei offered the following interpretation: “One who can attract all the people under his leadership is a king; one who cannot attract people but from whom people all disperse is an ordinary man.”14 Kang Youwei 康有为, A Study of Confucius’s Institutional Reforms [孔子改制考] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1958), 194. He adopted the theory of the Three Ages from the Gongyang School of the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE—25 CE), and combined China with the West, mixing in some views from modern Western evolutionary theory. He proclaimed that, in terms the Way of Heaven, those who arise later are superior to those who arise earlier; in terms of the Way of Humanity, later people have it easier than the earlier ones. In Kang’s view, the Chinese society of his time was “in a state of chaos,” while the European and American countries were generally “in a state of rising peace,” and since the latter is more advanced than the former, it should replace the former; the ideal world of the future should be “in a state of peace and tranquility.”15 Kang Youwei, Kang Youwei’s Collected Political Treatises [康有为政论集] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1998), 728. Kang Youwei pieced together the concepts of xiaokang 小康 (lit.small well-being) and datong 大同 (grand union) from the Book of Rites , with the Buddhist doctrines of compassion and the Western ideas of democracy, freedom, equality, and fraternity, and conceived his vision of the datong society. In the world of datong , private ownership has been completely abolished: “The world is held in public. All depends on public principles. Public refers to the equality of all, with no distinctions between superior and inferior, and no classes of rich and poor.”16 Kang Youwei, The Subtleties of Mencius [孟子微] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1987), 240. Agriculture, industry, commerce, and all other vocations have been converted to the public sector, and public welfare undertakings,including nurseries, nursing homes, libraries, and schools, are managed as public property by the public sector. In the datong society, all areas of economic activity are determined by planning. The whole production and distribution system is developed and orderly, so that everyone’s production and consumption can be satisfied to the greatest extent, and social wealth can be most effectively utilized. In this society, countries, clans, classes (ranks),monarchs, and nobles all disappear, and everyone enjoys a better life.
分析乾隆南巡期间排名前十的游览景观，杭州以西湖、孤山和云栖3处景观列在首位，苏州和镇江都以2处景观即寒山和灵岩山、金山和焦山并列第二，江宁、扬州和常州各以1处景观即栖霞山、大明寺、惠山位居第三。此外，苏州的虎丘是乾隆帝赋诗吟诵的重要景观，扬州的天宁寺和高旻寺、杭州的织造府行宫是乾隆帝题联赐匾的重要景观。
Some scholars have commented that there is an intellectual trend of cosmopolitanism latent in Chinese philosophy, from the lower level of cosmopolitanism that breaks through national centralism, to the higher level of cosmopolitanism that breaks through regional centralism, to the highest level of cosmopolitanism that breaks through anthropocentrism.The various forms of cosmopolitanism were all present in the minds of Chinese philosophers, a phenomenon that is rare in the history of world philosophy and deserves to be seriously explored.32 Zhang Yaonan 张耀南, “On the Perspective and Value of ‘Cosmopolitanism’ in Chinese Philosophy” [论中国哲学的“世界主义”视野及其价值], Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition) [北京大学学报（哲学社会科学版）], no. 3 (2005). Daniel A. Bell, an American scholar, questioned Zhao’s arguments,arguing that the political implications of tianxia were still unclear, and asked: What kind of political practices and institutions can be derived from the ideal of tianxia ? How are these practices and institutions different from those of the disputed protectors of global freedom and the Marxist defenders of global communism?33 Daniel A. Bell, China’s New Confucianism: Politics and Everyday Life in a Changing Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
In Chinese thought, tianxia involves metaphysical imagination, moral identity, and political application, but the term has a lot of ambiguity and is highly controversial. As China’s economic and political power grows stronger, thinkers and writers intensely debate the theoretical significance of China’s traditional world order. The concept oftianxia embodies a worldview rooted in Confucian morality and political thought, which determines a universal authority based on morality, ritual, and the aesthetic framework of a highly secular culture. As a result of systematic changes of discourse, the concept oftianxia has re-emerged in modern China as a moral and cultural way to connect with the international community. This intention becomes part of the international community and integrates into the situation of the world. “As ethical imperatives, philosophical tradition,or cultural politics that attempt to address the condition of the world today, it is not surprising that a variety of perspectives and answers have been presented, yet contemporary discussions of cosmopolitanism and cosmopolitics need a lot of translation work in order to connect with both Chinese history and the contemporary context.”34 Shuang Shen, Cosmopolitan Publics: Anglophone Print Culture in Semi-Colonial Shanghai (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 16.
Traditional Chinese thinkers attempted to combine universalism and cosmopolitanism with Chinese traditional metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, and Chinese-style utopian ideals.They examined cosmopolitanism from a perspective in which regions transformed into ethical politics. The conceptualization of traditional Chinese cosmopolitanism is as follows:(1) supernatural and superhuman concepts generated by the imagination of a certain ontology and cosmology; (2) the concept of natural existence through the geographical environment; (3) the idea of controlling society and all its lands through centralized rule;(4) conceptions of morality, ethical value, and ideals resulting from self-realization, selfperfection, self-purification, and self-transformation; and (5) the concept of the “superiority”of culture and civilization produced through comparison with the “inferiority” of Chinese minority culture. In the “Major Odes” [大雅] of the Book of Poetry we read, “King Wen is now above, / And reigns over us from Heaven. / Although Zhou is an old state, / Its mandate is thus renewed.” Here, “old state” can be regarded as the whole world under Heaven extended from the core geographical space of China, and “renewed” shows the importance of inheriting and constantly reforming Chinese culture in this world.
Bibliography of Cited Translations
从消防安全的角度考虑，防止发电机和UPS因火灾同时失去功能，油机房需在院内单独建设，距办公楼≥20m，对不能满足该条件的站点，可以根据现有条件安排，但油机房应做防噪音处理。
Knoblock, John, trans. Xunzi [荀子]. Changsha: Hunan People’s Publishing House; Beijing:Foreign Languages Press, 1999.
❋ This paper is a preliminary result of the project History of Confucianism in the West [西方儒学史], an independent Guoxue project supported by 2018 Guizhou Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Program (Project No. 18GZX16).
❋❋ Ding Zijiang, PhD, is professor of the Department of Philosophy at California Polytechnic State University. E-mail:zding@cpp.edu
❋ Zhu Yuan is professor of English in the School of Foreign Languages at Renmin University of China.
Translated by Zhu Yuan❋
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