A Study on Kant ’s Views on Humanity in His Aesthetics 〔*〕
Ding Qin
(School of Art Huangshan University,Huangshan Anhui 245041)
Abstract: A key to understand Immanuel Kant’s philosophy is his views on humanity,and the cornerstone of Kant’s philosophy is the idea that “beauty is a symbol of morality”.From the perspective of his views on humanity,we can have a deep understanding of Kant’s analysis of beauty and the sublime and his aesthetics.The focus of Kant’s aesthetics is the realization of human freedom and the sublime,and this is of special humanistic feature.
Key words: Kant’s aesthetics;views on humanity;self-confidence;freedom and self-discipline
Under the guidance of “God”,a human being inevitably left the long and deep primeval forest.When he opened his blindfolded eyes and began to look at the stars in the sky for the first time,there came to him a sense of the sublime and wonder: what are you?and who am I?“Knowing ourselves” is the logical starting point and ultimate purpose of positioning ourselves and exploring the world.Thinking about the destiny of individuals and human beings inevitably makes us think of the long-standing rational motto of Kant,a Western great philosopher,more than 200 years ago: “Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and reverence,the more frequently and persistently one’s meditation deals with them: the starry sky above me and the moral law within me.”〔1〕“Sky” and “moral law” are two images of Kant’s thinking on the prospect and destiny of human beings in the 18th century,which condenses his comprehensive thinking of “how can I know?”,“how should human beings do?”,“what can I believe?” and “what are human beings?”;the more we think about it and the deeper our thinking is,it seems that we are exposed to a bright light of “beauty”,that is,thinking about the “value of human beings”.Throughout Kant’s career,whether it is the pre-critical period,the critical period or the later period,his views on humanity views on humanityhave always been the core of his philosophy.It is incomplete and partial to talk about Kant’s philosophy or aesthetics without mentioning his views on humanity.As Deng Xiaomang said,“from the perspective of modern people,it is too narrow to view Kant’s philosophy only from the perspective of ‘critical philosophy’ in epistemology;and we must examine Kant’s whole philosophical system from the perspective of anthropology.”〔2〕
Ⅰ.Kant ’s aesthetics and views on humanity
Kant’s aesthetic thoughts are mainly embodied in his “third critique” — the Critique of the Power of Judgment,in which “beauty is a symbol of morality (goodness)” is a proposition put forward in “Dialectics” (Section 59) of the Critique of the Power of Judgment.In analogy with the Critique of Pure Reason,after the resolution of the “antinomy” under the “pure reason”,the “ideal of pure reason” is proposed;we may deduce that “beauty is a symbol of morality and an ideal of judgment” (hereinafter collectively referred to as the “ideal”);how to understand the position of this “ideal” in the Critique of the Power of Judgment and even its importance in Kant’s whole system of critical philosophy can be regarded as “a window” for us to understand and grasp Kant’s philosophical thought and aesthetic thought,and seeing through this window requires us to grasp Kant’s views on humanity,that is to say his views on humanity is the logical starting point and purpose of Kant’s critical philosophy.
Source of Kant’s views on humanity.Kant lived in the 18th century when the continent of Europe entered the era of full consciousness after the Renaissance and when the affirmation of reason and rights and the analysis of human nature arising from paying attention to the independence and respecting the value of human beings became an irresistible historical trend,and this trend prompted Kant to transform from the “pre-critical period” to the “critical period”.Mainly influenced by Newton in the pre-critical period,Kant used Newton’s classical mechanics system to explain the generation of the universe during his university days and meanwhile devoted himself to the study of physics and astronomy under the influence of the continental rationalism as advocated by Wolff,Leibniz,et al;and what really prompted him to pay attention to human beings was by reading Rousseau’s educational novel Emile.Rousseau’s thought on free will of human beings enlightened Kant’s views on humanity,so that he later recalled:
I am an inquirer by inclination.I feel a consuming thirst for knowledge,the unrest which goes with the desire to progress in it,and satisfaction at every advance in it.There was a time when I believed this constituted the honor of humanity,and I despised the people,who know nothing.Rousseau set me right about this.This binding prejudice disappeared.I learned to honor humanity,and I would find myself more useless than the common laborer if I did not believe that this attitude of mine can give worth to all others in establishing the rights of humanity.〔3〕
The light of reason inspired Kant to explore the mystery of the universe and stimulated his enthusiasm for knowledge,while the fire of “humanity” illumined Kant’s concern and respect for human beings,which prompted Kant to rethink the cognitive ability and reason of human beings and the moral “goodness”,and the theme about humanity ran through the whole critical period of Kant implicitly or explicitly.
“Good will” of “ideal” in the critical philosophical system.The Critique of the Power of Judgment is a follow-up to the Critique of Pure Reason and the Critique of Practical Reason;its core is to realize the connection from “intellectuality” (theoretical reason) to “reason” (practical reason) with “judgment” (appreciation judgment and beauty),thereby answering such questions as how “I” can achieve,“how I can know” to “what I can do” and “what I can believe in”.In short,appreciation judgment (aesthetics) is a kind of “bridge” for human beings to enter from “nature” into “thing-in-itself”,while “ideal” is the most concentrated manifestation of realizing this goal,and also reveals that “beauty” is the cultural implication of “human beings” from “self-confidence” to “self-respect” (good will and freedom).Therefore,he argues that “only the human figure seen as an expression of the incomparable worth of human morality can be seen as an ideal of beauty”.〔4〕
Kant’s views on humanity in “analysis of beauty.” “Quality,quantity,relationship and modality” are the “4 opportunities” in Kant’s aesthetic analysis.In this regard,4 rules of beauty are developed,that is,the pleasure of appreciation judgment (aesthetics) is without any interest,aesthetics or beauty is unconceptual and viewed as a universally pleasing object,aesthetics (appreciation) is based only on the subjective purposiveness form of an object (or its mode of expression),and beauty is a necessarily pleasing object without concept.In terms of “quality”,Kant distinguished among “comfort”,“goodness” and “beauty”,and compared the “freedom” of “beauty” and the “passivity” and “intentionality” of “comfort and goodness” from the perspective of interest,his ultimate purpose was to highlight the purity and apriority of beauty against free expression of human beings.“beautiful,(is) what merely pleases him;good,what is esteemed,approved,i.e.,that on which he sets an objective value.Agreeableness is also valid for nonrational animals;beauty is valid only for human beings...it could be said of satisfaction that it is related in the three cases mentioned to inclination,to favor,or to respect.For favor is the only free satisfaction.”〔5〕The sensory interests and moral “goodness” in the “first opportunity” are excluded from the object of “beauty”,which implies the assumption of the pure freedom of the subject and highlights the first rule of “human beings” (different from the moral freedom emphasized by practical reason).What best embodies Kant’s views on humanity in his aesthetics is the exposition of “ideal of beauty” in “the third opportunity” and “common sense” in “the fourth opportunity”,both of which point to “morality” (the basis of human beings).Kant pointed out that the innate principle of “appreciation judgment” was “purposiveness without purpose”;and with this as a standard,Kant divided the “ideal of beauty” into pure beauty and dependent beauty.In his ideal,although “pure beauty” conformed to the innate principle of subjective “purposiveness without purpose”,while in the actual aesthetic concept,“dependent beauty” was more in line with the realistic ideal of beauty,and thus he derived the special ideal nature of human beings: “Only that which has the end of its existence in itself,the human being,...this human being alone is capable of an ideal of beauty,just as the humanity in his person,as intelligence,is alone among all the objects in the world capable of the ideal of perfection.”〔6〕“Human being” has become the imagination of Kant’s “ideal of beauty”,and it is only inferred from the comparison with “pure beauty”.The “human being” as understood here is only an ideal inferior to the “ideal of beauty”,the true “beauty of ideal” is the “human image” beyond the “specification concept” rather than some kind of “good-looking mediocrity” image.In Kant’s view,good-looking mediocrity was a kind of ideal with personality and profoundness,so he emphasized that the ideal of human beings beyond the “specification concept” was the intrinsic implication with particularity;that is,in this image,“the ideal consists in the expression of the moral,without which the object would not please universally and moreover positively (not merely negatively in an academically correct presentation) ”.〔7〕From this,it transits to the exposition of the subjective inevitability of beauty in the “fourth opportunity” but subject to “common sense”,the presupposition of “appreciation judgment” and “common sense” is not explained in the article too much,and there are two reasons for this: firstly,“human beings” as “aesthetic ideal” have a common moral concept;and secondly,the common sense is not explained too much,thereby leaving room for suspense and interpretation for the analysis of the sublime below.
〔1〕Immanuel Kant,Critique of Practical Reason,Werner S.Pluhar,trans,Cambridge: Hackett,2002,p.203.
Ⅱ.Relevance among moral beauty ,natural beauty and freedom
Realistic significance of aesthetics in his views on humanity.A nation that does not appreciate beauty is a barbaric nation.Kant’s “uninterested”,“universal”,“subjective purposiveness without purpose” and “inevitable” rules in nature in respect of aesthetic appreciation practically contains the affirmation of subjectivity,freedom and reason of “human beings”;and meanwhile,his discussion of the absoluteness of moral law in the Critique of Practical Reason are all prescriptive constructions of human beings,that is,the essential rules on human beings.With this as a reference,it is like a mirror that has a profound warning effect on the material desire expansion,moral loss and aesthetic loss under the guidance of instrumental reason.
Human freedom in artistic beauty.Different from the perspective of natural beauty,Kant’s understanding of artistic beauty is mainly based on “moral goodness” rather than “human freedom”,primarily embodied in two themes: one is the “art of beauty” and the other is about the “freedom of genius”.On the basis of “general art”,Kant emphasized that the law of art of beauty should reflect a kind of freedom.“beautiful art must be regarded as nature,although of course one is aware of it as art”;〔11〕and in his view,the art of beauty is artificial with certain intentions,but it should be something that is liked in a simple judgment.The “art of beauty” has higher rules;and in Kant’s view,the art (craft) of machinery does not belong to the art of beauty and only the art of genius is the “art of beauty”;while after all,only a few people are geniuses;here,people feel that Kant seems to be an advocate of “spiritual aristocracy”,which has a concentrated expression in his expositions of “definition of genius” and “various inner abilities constituting a genius”;“ Genius is the talent (natural gift) that gives the rule to art”,and “Genius is the inborn predisposition of the mind (ingenium) through which nature gives the rule to art.”〔12〕It “really consists in the happy relation,which no science can teach and no diligence learn,of finding ideas for a given concept on the one hand and on the other hitting upon the expression for these,through which the subjective disposition of the mind that is thereby produced,as an accompaniment of a concept,can be communicated to others.”〔13〕Kant’s definition of genius and his exposition of psychological ability seem to have a tendency of mystification and extremes.From an empirical point of view,it conforms to the traditional concept of genius and the reality;but from an ideal point of view,he seems to emphasize the spiritual ideal of “freedom” in genius (though for many people,they are confined by laws of the nature and the rules in reality);which,to some extent,proves Kant’s idealization of “ideal of beauty” — the intrinsic freedom rules of human beings,through the definition of art;and “for the existence such as human beings,only he or she is self-disciplined in the will,he or she is the existence of reason or the existence of freedom as the own essence”.〔14〕Kant’s emphasis on human freedom is an important aspect of enlightenment,and later he extended this kind of human freedom to the human community.In his later years,he had a deep thought on the “critique of historical reason”,for example there were profound expositions in his Permanency and Review and Bringing Up the Question Again: Are Human Beings Constantly Moving Toward Improvement?He firmly believed in world peace and humanity’s constantly developing to the direction of improvement.This kind of thinking on human idealization has always been the foundation of Kant’s philosophy and is also the charm of his “humanistic” position of aesthetic thought,always applying.In the beginning of the Practical Anthropology,Kant said,“All cultural progress,by means of which the human being advances his education,has the goal of applying this acquired knowledge and skill for the world’s use.But the most important object in the world to which he can apply them is the human being: because the human being is his own final end.”〔15〕
Ⅲ.Significance of views on humanity in Kant ’s aesthetic thought
Kant’s views on humanity includes human moral law,human freedom and the human sublime.His aesthetic thought covers the innate rules of human moral ideals and free understandings,especially his emphasis on purposelessness without purpose of beauty and high praise of human inner sublime are the concentrated expressions of humanistic thought.And this “people-oriented” aesthetic concept has important enlightenment value,aesthetic value and practical significance.
Notes :
Enlightenment value to human beings.Kant’s aesthetic exploration of the standpoint giving birth to his views on humanity benefited from the background of enlightenment era at that time,and his philosophical system aimed at discussion of “human beings” and took human enlightenment as an ideal.His Critique of Pure Reason solves the problem of how human cognition is possible,and categorizes human cognition in the phenomena world,on one hand he affirmed the theoretical reason ability of human beings and delimited the intellectual ability of human beings,and on the other hand he fully praised the subjectivity of human beings and affirmed the enlightenment value of human beings.In the article Answering This Question,What Is Enlightenment in 1784,he clearly defined enlightenment and believed that enlightenment was the conscious use of personal reason by human beings out of the “state of guardianship”.He satirized the ignorance of the individual’s loss of subjective “monitoring”,eulogized the act of bravely using personal reason to express wills,and also castigated the act of suppressing personal reason,which condensed the appeal of freedom in the Age of Enlightenment.
〔2〕Deng Xiaomang,Preface to Second Edition of Chinese Translation,in Immanuel Kant,Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View,translated by Deng Xiaomang,Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House,2005,p.2.
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Moral concept in natural beauty.Natural beauty is associated with human moral concept,which is more elaborated in the “interest in the intellectuality of beauty”,exploring the genetic relationship between human morality and the nature and highlighting the relationship between morality and beauty.He believed that a person who was interested in the nature had a certain moral goodness quality,“I do assert that to take an immediate interest in the beauty of nature (not merely to have taste in order to judge it) is always a mark of a good soul,and that if this interest is habitual,it at least indicates a disposition of the mind that is favorable to the moral feeling,if it is gladly combined with the viewing of nature.”〔9〕Meanwhile,Kant separated this interest in natural beauty from the empirical interest,i.e.from the artificial “natural decoration”,giving innate inner settings to moral good will,which was to some extent similar to that of pre-Qin Confucianists who praised the natural beauty and endowed moral symbol to natural beauty,such as “The wise find pleasure in hills,and the virtuous find pleasure in water” (The Analects of Confucius · Ran Yong),“I give my approval to Dian” (The Analects of Confucius · Those of Former Eras) and “Jade’s quality corresponds to a gentleman’s virtue” (Xuncius · Courtesy).This is a tendency to compare the nature with morality and highlight the inherent morality of human subject.Kant also symbolized the inner sentiment of human beings with natural colors,with 7 colors from red to purple to symbolize the sublime,courage,sincerity,fraternity,humility,toughness and gentleness inherent in human beings.According to Kant’s division of “pure beauty” and “dependent beauty”,“natural beauty” can be undoubtedly classified as “pure beauty”.The pure form of the nature is more in line with the mental mechanism of the free game of imagination and intellectuality generated from appreciation judgment;however,Kant hereby compared it with human beings’ inner moral concept,mainly aiming at highlighting the importance of the inner “sublime” of human beings,and on the other hand paving the way for the transition from beauty as a medium to moral goodness and freedom,just as Gayer said that “both natural beauty and the sublime are so important,just as they offer us,more than any other form of art,the great opportunity of self-discipline.”〔10〕
在计算选型回转支撑的过程中，需要计算出折臂式铁钻工在工作过程中的静载荷和动载荷，并需要将计算得出的回转支承当量中心轴向载荷Fa与回转支承当量倾覆力矩M转化为量载荷F'a和M'。
古希腊哲学对宇宙本体存在的形而上沉思，与人的道德生存方式关联。哲学家们力图在跌宕起伏、变幻莫测的现象世界中，把握恒久常在的东西，以构建道德形而上学之根基。苏格拉底的“美德即知识”，表达了道德行为的普遍法则与宇宙的根本法则的合二为一。在柏拉图金字塔式的概念结构中，最高理念是真与善一体的至上境界，这一质朴的亲和状态绵延至近代，在培根“知识就是力量”的号角声中，理性身败名裂，其价值意义与工具意义分道扬镳。
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The ideal of humanity in Kant’s view of the sublime.The view of the sublime is the best embodiment of human subjective thinking in Kant’s aesthetics,and its difference from beauty mainly lies in that the sublime (both the sublime of mathematics and the sublime of mechanics) is combined with the expression of quantity,while beauty is the quality of appearance,one focuses on the infinity of appearance and the other on the finiteness of appearance,and the “state of mind” embodied by the two is thus completely different;appreciation judgment is a free game of imagination and intellectuality,bringing about a feeling of promoting life,while sublime appearance,which cannot be perceived,at first gives the subject an unpleasant resistance,only by resorting to reason under the influence of imagination can the infinity of appearance be governed,so it can be seen that the sense of the sublime and the sense of beauty are two completely different states of mind,wherein the sense of the sublime shows the superiority of reason ability of human beings,which on the other hand highlights Kant’s speaking highly of reason value of human beings,thereby making a foundation for his proposition that “beauty is a symbol of morality”.His emphasis on human sublime highlights the particularity of human beings’ difference from natural objects in respect of subjectivity and individuality,that is,the sublime does not come from the outside world,but exists in the heart of the subject.Here,we can understand that this sense of the sublime not only stems from the infinite nature to inspire the pride of individuals to overcome it,but also is seen as recognition and approval of the moral spirit of human beings.Meanwhile,he also explored the roots of the sense of the sublime of human beings;in his view,for the inherent sense of the sublime generated from overcoming the infinite nature,although it needed to have a higher cultural attainment in experience,he insisted on presupposing it as a universal necessity for everyone from the innate principle of morality,that is,“but because the latter (the sublime) relates the imagination to reason,as the faculty of ideas,we require it only under a subjective presupposition (which,however,we believe ourselves to be justified in demanding of everyone),namely that of the moral feeling in the human being,and so we also ascribe necessity to this aesthetic judgment”.〔8〕From the exposition of sense of the sublime,we can see Kant’s intention to reconcile empiricism and rationalism and to construct human subject on the basis of experience and ideal.
由图1可看出，1号和2号菌呈短杆状，3号和4号为球状，根据其菌落形态、菌体形态等特征判断，具有细菌的典型性，均为单细胞。
Emphasis on human aesthetic ability.Kant’s construction of aesthetic appreciation breeds the freedom of art,which is deeply expounded in the Critique of the Power of Judgment.He put forward that “beauty is a symbol of morality” was actually another expression of “beauty is a symbol of freedom”.The rules of freedom and morality are the concentrated expressions of Kant’s aesthetics and views on humanity,and both of them imply self-convention of the will and expression of human subjectivity.
〔3〕quoted in Allen Wood,General Introduction,in Immanuel Kant,Practical Philosophy,Mary J.Gregor,trans,Cambridge: Cambridge UP,1996,p.xvii.
〔4〕Paul Guyer,Editor’s introduction,in Critique of the Power of Judgment,Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews,trans,Cambridge:Cambridge UP,2000.
〔5〕〔6〕〔7〕〔8〕〔9〕〔11〕〔12〕〔13〕Immanuel Kant,Critique of the Power of Judgment,Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews,trans,Cambridge: Cambridge UP,2000.pp.95,117,120,149,178,186,186,194.
〔10〕Paul Guyer,Kant and the Experience of the Freedom,Cambridge: Cambridge UP,1993,p230.Paul Guyer,Kant and the Experience of the Freedom,Cambridge University Press,1993,p.230.
〔14〕Cui Yiming,Concept of Freedom in Immanuel Kant’s Philosophy: Between Free Will and Free Rights,Journal of East China Normal University (Philosophy & Social Sciences),2010(5).
〔15〕Immanuel Kant,Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View,Robert B.Louden,trans,Cambridge:Cambridge UP,2006，p.3.
About the author： Ding Qin,associate professor of School of Art of Huangshan University,research direction:painting.
〔*〕This paper was funded by the following projects:Key project of Humanities and Social Sciences of Anhui provincial Education Department(SK2017A0380);General project of Humanities and Social Sciences of Anhui provincial Education Department(SKHS2016B08);School-level Research Platform(KYPT201816).
DOI： 10.3969/j.issn.1002-1698.2019.08.023
标签：Kant'论文; s论文; aesthetics论文; views论文; on论文; humanity论文; self-confidence论文; freedom论文; and论文; self-discipline论文; School of Art Huangshan University论文;