Belt and Road Initiative and China's International Energy Cooperation
Xu Qinhua and Yuan Miao*
Abstract: In terms of energy supply, the Belt and Road Initiative has accelerated China’s international cooperation and has shaped, via that cooperation, the focus upon clean energy and low-carbon innovation.Under the Belt and Road framework, the market will play an increased role as multilateral organizations engage in new models of international energy cooperation. As the largest energy consumer and public goods provider, China’s transition in energy cooperation will profoundly impact regional energy security and development. The economic growth of partners will also enhance results.
Keywords: Belt and Road Initiative, international energy cooperation,economic relations
W ith clean energy a priority, the Belt and Road Initiative has accelerated a revolutionary transition in global energy. Against a backdrop that includes a world energy sphere in transition and China’s domestic energy reforms, the country is shifting attention away from dependence on oil, and toward optimized, structured energy consumption in support of its overall security. China seeks balance among energy security, environmental protection and economic growth. The ongoing energy cooperation of Belt and Road emphasizes green development,import of resources, domestic growth potential, and global energy governance.
The Silk Road Economic Belt concept, first introduced by President Xi Jinping during his 2013 speech at Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan,calls for economic cooperation between China and Central Asia.1 “China Unveils Action Plan on Belt and Road Initiative,”China Daily, March 28,2015,accessed May 5,2019,http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2015-03/28/content_19938124.htm. Countries involved in the Belt and Road are vital energy producers, consumers and channels.The Chinese government’s plan, released in 2017, states that the Belt and Road seeks energy cooperation“to jointly build up an open,inclusive, and beneficial community of shared interests, responsibility and destiny.”2 “Vision and Actions on Energy Cooperation in Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road,”May 12, 2017, accessed May 5,2019,http://www.nea.gov.cn/2017-05/12/c_136277478.htm. The correlation between Belt and Road and China’s international energy cooperation indicates that a balance of supply and demand, and integrated production chains strengthen regional energy security.
Energy Cooperation Transition
Via the export of its clean energy technology and standards, China expands cooperation with traditional resource exporters. This increases growth potential for Chinese renewable energy companies and ensures the security of the international energy market. The Middle East is a crucial strategic area in energy cooperation,and the Belt and Road deepens energy policy support and strategic collaboration between China and Middle Eastern countries. Dependence on oil and gas production is giving way to diversified energy cooperation, as exemplified by Chinese renewable energy projects in Monaco,Dubai and Egypt.
When China became a net oil importer in 1996 and a net gas importer in 2006, the importation of energy resources became the priority of its energy supply security. China’s cooperation with Russia, Brazil and Mexico ensued.Complex geopolitics, and domestic political turbulence among energy resource exporters make diversification in resource imports the less risky route. China’s stable energy cooperation with Russia and Central Asian countries, and a strong link with the largest liquified natural gas project in the Arctic, the Yamal LNG project, are foundational. The first train began operating in December 2017,and within a year Russia became China’s top supplier of natural gas.The Yamal project is the first whole industrial chain energy cooperation in Russia, and the plant when fully operational will have three trains with total annual LNG capacity of 16.5 million tons. The Central Asia-China gas pipeline has increased its inflow to China, most recently seeing 2017 deliveries of 38.7 billion m3 rise to 47.5 billion m3 in 2018. The inflow of Turkmen gas helps China meet its growing energy demands. Now being built, Line D, the most significant chunk of the Central Asia-China gas network,will fill some more of China’s needs.
On the China-Africa energy scene, Belt and Road cooperation is a driving force. Chinese enterprises emphasize talent training and export of technology standards, both beneficial for capacity-building and sustainable cooperation.Since 2015,China has implemented ten cooperation plans that were adopted at the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation(FOCAC)summit in Johannesburg. To build a closer China-Africa community with a shared future in the new era,in the next three years and beyond China is launching eight initiatives in collaboration with African countries, as announced by President Xi at the 2018 Beijing Summit and FOCAC’s 7th Ministerial Conference.1 “Full Text of Chinese President Xi Jinping’s Speech at Opening Ceremony of 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit (2),”Xinhuanet, September 3, 2018, accessed May 6,2019,http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-09/03/c_137441990.htm. Capacity building is entwined in these initiatives. Domestic growth potential in Africa is being fostered by experience exchanges,technological training, innovation center building, and encouraging students from African nations to study in China.The Belt and Road’s plans align with Africa’s Agenda 2063, African development strategy, and the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
As Chinese oil and gas enterprises sought international cooperation,diplomatic resources supported national energy security, and state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and private businesses, and financing and guarantee companies joined in. The Tianjin refinery and the Yamal LNG projects exemplify an extension of this. Russia opened the upstream for China to obtain stable oil and gas supplies at reasonable prices, while China opened the downstream for Russia to acquire higher value-added products. The Belt and Road provides a platform for Chinese and foreign enterprises to release production capacity and optimize resource distribution.Trina Solar’s smart energy manufacturing facility in Thailand, for instance, offers annualized production capacity of 500 MW for solar photovoltaic modules,and 700 MW for PV cells.1 “Trina Solar Launches Operations at Thailand Manufacturing Facility and Signs a US$143 million Syndicated Financing Facilities Agreement,”March 28,2016,accessed May 6,2019,https://www.trinasolar.com/us/news/trina-solar-launches-operations-thailand-manufacturing-facility-and-signs-us143-million. Additionally, private enterprises provide numerous jobs for locals.
Energy Strategy
China’s global energy strategy is being pushed forward with the implementation of the Belt and Road because a huge consumer market can influence energy price and cooperation. The export of clean energy technology is behind China’s domestic energy transition and its increased global governance capability. Concrete actions by China introduce innovative approaches in international energy cooperation.
本文应用BIM技术对装配式建筑施工方案进行全过程模拟，总结了BIM技术在装配式建筑工程施工进度管理中的应用过程。应用BIM 4D相关软件模拟了装配式建筑的施工过程，并能够运用BIM模型对装配式建筑指导现场施工，实现精准安装预制构件，布置预制构件模板，避免了现场安装碰撞和错误的问题，合理地利用了施工场地。
In global energy governance, China leads the world’s renewable energy revolution, and its participation in global energy production,consumption and governance has increased China’s impact.2 Lihuan Zhou, Sean Gilbert, Ye Wang, Miquel Muñoz Cabre and Kevin P.Gallagher,“Moving the Green Belt and Road Initiative: From Words to Actions,”Working Paper,Washington DC:World Resources Institute,2018,22. Cooperation with Europe on global energy governance progressed in 2018, which is the 15th anniversary of the China-European Union Comprehensive Strategic Partnership. At the China-EU Summit in July 2018 in Beijing, European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker, European Council President Donald Tusk, and Prime Minister Li Keqiang adopted a“Leaders’Statement on Climate Change and Clean Energy.”Realization of that commitment is reflected in a willingness to jointly work on energy efficiency, clean energy generators, climate and clean energy projects, and carbon capture and storage technology. Due to European technology and the size of the Chinese market,Europe and China have significant positions in future global energy transition.
Clean energy infrastructure drives momentum for global energy reform and cooperation. Steep declines since 2013 in coal, oil and electric power cooperation,and a low level of oil cooperation since 2017 signal the transition. Traditional fossil fuel cooperation may dominate now but lowcarbon and clean energy is central to China’s international cooperation.Since infrastructure is an overwhelming need in energy connectivity,1 David von Hippel,Ruslan Gulidov,Victor Kalashniko and Peter Hayes,“Northeast Asia Regional Energy Infrastructure Proposals,”Energy Policy,39,2011,6863-6865. regional economies are boosted by infrastructure construction in China’s neighbor countries. Energy utilization is increasing in Africa. Thus, the energy internet, and smart electric networking are necessary supports for clean energy cooperation.
人口密度是商业综合体选址的重要因素，人口密度丰富程度影响着商圈的商业发展。徐州的老城片区人口流量大，主要以传统的商业为主，一些本土超市、国营传统百货、百货大楼、古彭大厦等都选址在老城片区，是早期的商业中心。由于人口流量可以拉动消费，带动商业综合体的运营，商业综合体的选址多选择在居民点密集、高校周边、交通便利的地方。
As an important participator in international energy cooperation,China actively engages in UN activities and those of its subsidiary bodies.China has joined in non-governmental energy organizations since 1978,and it cooperates with regional organizations such as the APEC energy working group, IEA, and the EU. China’s latest effort is in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Energy Club. China’s emphasis on cooperation in its global energy strategy, begun in 2013, is designed to serve its national growth and energy development. When China expanded oil trade with Saudi Arabia, signing with Aramco to build an oil refinery in Yanbu with China’s Sinopec Group, China’s first refinery was built outside the country. This led to elevated diplomacy and a comprehensive strategic partnership with Saudi Arabia in 2016. Other international enterprises and NGOs have collaborated with China on energy projects.
Investment channels and platforms offer opportunities for China.Through direct investment, mergers and acquisitions, public-private partnership, and engineering procurement construction, the energy corporations backed by financing have investment stability. A cooperation agreement signed in October 2018 offers convenient financing.Among the multi-partner energy projects are pipelines supplying China from Central Asia and Myanmar, Silk Road on the Ice, and the Yamal LNG project.The Central Asia gas pipeline connects China with Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. South Korea and India cooperate on the China-Myanmar oil and natural gas pipelines. Russia’s secondlargest natural gas producer, Novatek owns 50.9 percent of Yamal LNG,while CNPC and France’s Total each own 20 percent of the project, and the Silk Road Fund 9.1 percent.2 China National Petroleum Corporation,2017 Annual Report,13.
Cooperation Models
Three models of cooperation are seen. First, vertical contacts enhance bilateral ties and energy supply security. Even in an early stage of cooperation, China’s energy security concentrated on accessibility, price fluctuation, transportation routes’security, and environment security. For China, more dependence on foreign resources is an inevitable choice.Second, ensuring national ownership is vital for international cooperation.Committed to energy diplomacy, China signed agreements with many countries and sees sound relations as a cornerstone. Third, China was a follower because of weak capacity and security concern. China has not joined in any regional energy organizations despite its contact with them.
Since China adopted a new energy strategy in 2014, the openness of energy cooperation has been enhanced through Belt and Road construction.Under the new energy security outlook, green energy development has become the core policy of this, and the impetus has shifted from support security to comprehensive security, a direct result of China’s transition from self-sufficiency in oil and gas in 1978, to energy diversification in 2005-2010, and finally with its integration of energy with environmental preservation beginning in 2012. The motivation behind this transition lies in the country’s energy consumption structure, which is reliant on diverse sources ranging from coal to renewables. China’s energy security outlook emphasizes security, safety and interdependence of global energy security.1 Lundin Petroleum AB,Report for the Nine Months Q3,September 2013,39. After the 2008 financial crisis, oil consuming countries boosted their impact in global energy markets, and China now has more weight. In its“Vision and Actions on Energy Cooperation”plan for the Silk Road,developing green energy development has a high priority in future Belt and Road construction and global energy cooperation.2 Li Hongze, Li Fengyun and Yu Xinhua,“China’s Contributions to Global Green Energy and Low-Carbon Development: Empirical Evidence under the Belt and Road Framework,”Energies,Vol.11,No.6(2018):1529.
China today imports oil and gas from countries rich in carbonemitting fossil fuels, but long-term investment is needed for clean energy development.1 IEA,Clean Energy Progress Report,2011,19. Countries with a higher GDP and fewer natural resources will prefer the clean energy industry,which is where the Belt and Road has innovated three models of international energy cooperation.
1.3.4 免疫组化结果判断标准 本研究VEGF阳性表达标准参照文献[5]，因VEGF表达于细胞浆中，染色呈棕黄色视为阳性。阳性细胞数占0%～10%为0分，阳性细胞数占11%～25%为1分，阳性细胞数占26%～50%为2分，阳性细胞数占51%～75%为3分，阳性细胞数>75%为4分。0～2分为表达阴性，≥3分为表达阳性。选用试剂盒中阳性片作为阳性对照，PBS取代一抗作为阴性对照。
“我发现很多人为了减肥，也是蛮拼的。比如，无糖饮料的味道并不好，但他们为了不增胖，往往选择无糖饮料。”
The vertically multiple model, exercised for energy cooperation between China and resource-rich nations, depends on cooperation with energy SOEs. This new model is a change from previous uni-directional investment and market exploitation. Bilateral investment and conditions of the whole industrial chain deepen interdependence and reduce risks. One,for instance, is the China-Saudi memorandum of understanding on the construction of a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor.
A second model, horizontal clean energy cooperation, operates between China and energy importers, helping China to grasp technology and strengthen its international impact. Having started at a low level of technological expertise in clean energy, China values technological cooperation and experience learning so as to integrate into global clean energy application specifications.2 Zhao Zhenyu,Zuo Jian,Feng Tiantian and George Zillante,“International Cooperation on Renewable Energy Development in China—A Critical Analysis,”Renewable Energy,Vol.36(2011):1110. Since 2010, China and Germany have cooperated on electric vehicles. They agreed on standardizing electric vehicles charging plugs. The relationship between Anhui Jianghuai Automobile and NIO and German car companies expanded Chinese influence such that, in 2015, China announced its measures on climate change to the UN, and China has led efforts to cut emissions through national emissions trading policies. China has the highest level of political commitment to implementing the Paris climate accord.
A cross-cooperation model, a third type, will play a larger role in multilateral cooperation. It functions between China and energy importers with lower GDP. Now a provider of regional public goods and a leader in clean energy, China supports these less developed economies. Downstream industries and infrastructure construction between China and African countries, private business’participation in upstream industrial cooperation,and renewable energy projects in small hydro, solar, wind, biogas, and clean cookstoves have been implemented in parts of Africa. African local governments and enterprises cooperate on clean energy projects using this model, as do Chinese new energy automobile and smart grid system businesses. In talent training, China has trained 40,000 African officials and technicians,and many more professionals from African nations.1 “Guoxinban juxing zhongfei hezuo luntan beijing fenghui jingmao gongzuo chuifenghui[Press briefing on trade at the State Council Information Office before FOCAC Beijing Summit],”accessed March 17,2019,http://www.scio.gov.cn/xwfbh/xwbfbh/wqfbh/37601/38874/index.htm.
双方对峙了一会儿，一只冥河盗龙突然从侧面冲了上来，看来它是想冒险打破僵局。反应迅速的肿头龙注意到了冥河盗龙的动作，它马上低着头冲了过来。眼看双方就要撞到一起了，这时，冥河盗龙一下子跳了起来，后腿努力向前伸出，想用脚上锋利的镰刀爪刺伤肿头龙。只听“咚”的一声闷响，紧接着发出一阵尖厉的叫声。原来冥河盗龙不仅没有伤到肿头龙，自己反而被撞了出去，重重地摔落在树丛中。由于强大的惯性作用，肿头龙又向前跑了好几步才停下来，它喘着粗气，身上的肌肉仍然紧绷着，随时准备撞击下一个目标。看到自己的同伴被肿头龙撞飞，就连骨头断裂的声音都清晰可辨，其他冥河盗龙退缩了，它们可不打算赔上自己的性命，一个个灰溜溜地逃走了。
The energy revolution should be promoted by adjusting the abovementioned cooperation models. First would be strengthening market rules in the vertically multiple model. There is more political support and intergovernmental coordination to be had in the Belt and Road Initiative.2 Du Julan and Zhang Yifei,“Does One Belt One Road Initiative Promote Chinese Overseas Direct Investment?,”China Economic Review,Vol.47(2018):192. This reduces policy uncertainty and political risks in Chinese FDI.Following international energy market rules is necessary for China to further participate in global cooperation. Second, horizontal clean energy cooperation reflects a more proactive approach to multilateral coordination,and the market and corporations have key roles here. Market-based cooperation is a multilateral one built upon normative international governmental regulations.3 John V. Mitchell,“Renewing Energy Security,”R1IA Working Paper, London:Royal Institute of International Affairs,July 2002,23. China has no effective or substantial cooperation with global or regional energy organizations.4 Alex Xingqiang He,“China in Global Energy Governance:A Chinese Perspective,”International Organisations Research Journal,Vol.11.No.1(2016):55-68. Only China’s greater visibility and impact result in its participation in global energy governance system. China should seize the opportunity and make use of international resources. Third, sensible caution over China’s growing regional impact is called for. Since China has been blamed for unconditional cooperation with developing countries, it is evitable for China to invest in regional talent and accurately placed strategic partners.
As the largest energy consumer and public goods provider, China’s transition in energy cooperation will profoundly impact regional energy security and development. These three innovative cooperation models will result in effective utilization of international resources and more emphasis on clean energy. The Belt and Road Initiative will foster a more secure,open and green energy cooperation system with regional and global participation, and this energy development will push forward economic growth that could allow neighboring countries to share the fruit of China’s economic success.
* Xu Qinhua, a professor at the School of International Studies, Renmin University of China, is director of the university’s Center for International Energy and Environment Strategy Studies.Yuan Miao is PhD candidate at the School of International Studies.
(edited by Zhang Yimeng)
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