英语中若干否定形式的比较,本文主要内容关键词为:英语论文,形式论文,此文献不代表本站观点,内容供学术参考,文章仅供参考阅读下载。
人们用语言表达思想时,总是要涉及到意义的正与反,肯定与否定两个方面。每种语言都有它自己一套表达否定意义的形式和方法。对中国学生来说,用not,never等词平铺直叙的否定,不难接受,也不易造成误解。但是对暗含的否定,双重否定和重复否定等各种否定的变异形式就不那么习惯,常常是读之不解其意,用则容易失误。为了要正确透彻地理解否定语句的内在含意,有必要了解英语否定意义的各种表达方式及其特点。为此,本文就英语否定的几种表达方式彼此间的差别,以及某些混合交替,互相转化的现象进行对比和阐述。
一、一般否定与特指否定
英语中根据否定对象和否定范围的不同,可以分为一般否定和特指否定。这两类否定各自的特点是多方面的。
1.否定范围不同
一般否定是英语中表达否定意义的最常用的方法,通常用否定词not来否定谓语动词,谓语被否定,全句的意义也就被否定。例如:
It was not (wasn't)so.
Don't talk rot.
特指否定是对谓语以外的成分加以否定,这种否定只涉及到句子的某个成分。否定词not必须放在被否定的成分面前。例如:
I am ashamed of not knowing it.
Not having heard from him,I wrote again.
在否定句中,否定词的位置不同,被否定的成分也就不同,并且关系到该否定句是特指否定,还是一般否定。比较下列句子:
We told him not to go.(特指否定)
We didn't tell him to go.(一般否定)
not的位置不同可导致意义的差别。当not用来否定谓语动词时,构成“一般否定”,即否定全句;当not用来否定后面不定式时,则构成“特指否定”,只起到局部否定的作用。但是,在appear,expect,happen,intend,plan,seem,tend,want,wish等动词后面跟不定式时,如果要构成否定语句,否定词not既可以置于这些动词之前,也可以置于后面不定式之前,意义完全相同。例如:
She does not appear to appreciate my explanation.=She appears notto appreciate my explanation.
They seemed not to notice me.=They did not seem to notice me.
在非正式文体中,not往往置于这类谓语动词之前。
no在句首时,由于否定范围大小不同,也会出现特指否定和一般否定两种情况:
No two persons think alike.(没有两人想法是一样的。)
No news is good news.(没有消息便是好消息。)
第一句中,no的否定范围扩大到全句,整个句子的意思被否定了,应属于一般否定。但第二句中的no,仅限于否定主语,是特指否定。有时,同是一个句子,孤立地去理解字面意义会产生歧义。例如:
No work will kill him.(什么工作都压不垮他。)
No work will kill him。(不做工作就会把他折磨死。)
第一句用降升调处理,no的否定范围扩大到全句,属一般否定;第二句用升降调处理,no只否定主语,属特指否定。究竟该取何种意义,则取决于上下文和语调。
2.语法特点不同
在一般否定句中通常不用also,still,already,而必须用(not)yet,neither(或not…either):但在特指否定句却可以使用。如:
He was still not a brilliant controversialist.
You behave as if you were married to her already.You are not married to her already,……
有时,特指否定句和一般否定句可以相互转换,意义彼此相同,但某些词语必须作相应的改变。比较下列各组例句,A句是特指否定,B句是一般否定:
A:We saw nothing yesterday.
B:We didn't see anything yesterday.
A:He is no longer our friend.
B:He isn't our friend any longer.
A:I could recite neither this poem nor this story.
B:I couldn't recite either this poem or this story.
3.特指否定与一般否定的某些混合与交替现象
有些句子形式上是特指否定,可是意思上却是一般否定。例如:
Oliver stopped to make no reply.(=Oliver did not stop to make a (any)reply.)
相反,有时形式上虽是一般否定,但意思上却是特指否定。例如:
He did not come to work by bus.(=He came to work not by bus.)
应当说明,这类句子用一般否定是正常的,特指否定常常只有在对照时才使用:
He came to work not by bus,but on foot.
二、完全否定与部分否定
在英语中,根据否定的程度大小,可确定其是完全否定,还是部分否定。
1.完全否定是百分之百地否认一个事物的存在、成立或真实性。表示完全否定的否定词有no,not,nothing,nobody,none,nowhere,never,neither,nor,nowise等,例如:
Nothing ever pleases her.
My pen is nowhere to be seen.用not+any/anyone/anybody/anything/anywhere/either 或not+half也可表示完全否定(=not at all),通常在口语中使用。例如:
I don't like either of the films.
You don't mean half what you are saying.
带否定词缀的词,也可表示完全否定:
Bacteria are invisible to the naked eye.
All the problems remained unsettled.
2.部分否定通常由not+all/both/each/everybody/everything等来表达。例如:
NOt all he said was to the point.
Not everybody can do the same.
但部分否定并不总是用这种方式表达,有时也以一般否定句的形式出现,即把否定主语的not与谓语动词放在一起。例如:
All is not gold that glisters.
not也可以对某些状语、宾语作部分否定:
The rules don't apply to all cases.
I don't wholly agree with you.
部分否定也可以是对较大数量或较大程度的否定。因此,可以用not+many/much/very much/some来表示部分否定。例如:
There are not many books on the shelf.
His behaviour does not accord with his principle very much.
此外英语中有一种介于完全否定和部分否定之间的“否定”,即基本否定。所谓基本否定就是在语气上将否定对象基本上否定,即百分之九十以上否定,肯定部分仅占很小部分。
比较:Nobody believes that.(完全否定)
Hardly anybody believes that.(基本否定)
Not all the people believe that.(部分否定)
基本否定的表达方式主要是用不完全否定词hardly,scarcely,rarely,barely,seldom,few,little等,来表达否定意义。这些词很接近never,not,no,none等词,不过语气较弱,而且在否定意义上留有余地,不象never,no等词那样绝对。
三、双重否定与重复否定
在英语否定句中,有时否定不止一次,可能否定两次或两次以上。在这种情况下,必须分清是双重否定,还是重复否定。因为,这两种否定在语义上有着根本区别,反映出说话人两种不同的语言心理和思维方式。
1.双重否定是指两个否定成分限定同一个词或词素;或是一个否定词否定另一个否定词,取得肯定意义的表达形式。否定之否定成为肯定,这是合乎逻辑的。表达双重否定的形式有三种。
(1)把否定词not放在带有否定前缀的单词前面:
He was not unable to do the job by himself.
Apparently he was not displeased with my answer.
这类双重否定形式,是一种委婉说法,削弱了句子意义,语气通常比单纯的肯定句弱。
(2)将not和without+名语连用,用not去否定without+名词,一般作状语:
I have brought back your man—not without risk and danger.
He replied,not without hesitation,that he was ready to go.相反,用cannot+行为动词跟without+名词或动名词连用,其语气不是减弱而是加强了。否定词也可以是no,never,或用not(not)跟but连用。例如:
We cannot live without air.
I couldn't but laugh when I heard such a story.
(3)用否定词来否定含有否定意义的谓语动词。例如:
They do not deny that their work leaves much to be desired.
We shall not fail to help you when necessary.
not/never/none跟too搭配,也属双重否定,too暗含否定意义。例如:
We cannot work too much for the people.(为人民服务的工作做得越多越好。)
You arrived none too early.(你到得不算太早。)
此外,还可以用否定跟含否定意义的连接词unless,until,but等词连用,构成双重否定;句型too…not to+动词原形,也可以说是一种双重否定,用来表示强烈的肯定。Jesperson说得好:“语言有它自己的逻辑,在这里语言逻辑有其可取之处。只要两个否定词指的确实是同一个概念或同一个词(作为特殊否定),结果总是肯定的。任何语言概不例外。”
2.重复否定是由两个或更多的否定词,接二连三地用在一起而形成的。有时,否定句中本来应该用不定词,却用了否定词,结果形成了多次否定。重复否定是一种强调否定,不象双重否定那样,以一个否定词,抵消了另一个否定词的否定意义,使之转化为肯定。所以双重否定的含义是肯定的,而重复否定的意义,无论重复否定多少次,意义总是否定的。例如:
I won't trouble nobody about nothing no more.
No bread,no butter,no cheese,no nothing.
例句中重复出现的否定词均起强调否定语气的作用,读者不能用双重否定的规则来理解这类句子。这种重复否定在很多语言中都十分常见,在标准英语中被视为是不合规则的,但英美人常如此使用也就约定俗成了。这种用法也常出自某些文学家之笔。例如:
I can't do nothing without my staff.—Hardy
You won't lose nothing by it.—Herrick
You ain't never mind to let my things alone no more.—Mansfield
此外,与双重否定和重复否定相似的有多项否定和延续否定。这两种否定必须引起注意,务必跟上述两种否定区别开来。多项否定是指前面有一项否定,后面接着又有一项或几项否定:
He can't do it,nor can I,nor can you,nor can anybody.
In old China there was hardly any machine—building industry,to say nothing of an aviation industry.
延续否定则是一个否定概念在句中得到多次重复(用相同方式或不同方式)。其目的是为了更明确地表达否定意思,它既不是双重否定,也不是重复否定。在否定句后加一些具体的内容加以否定,以补充强调前面的否定。它有三种表达形式:
(1)一个或多个意义相近的否定词,在句中重复出现。
Oh,not now,not now.
None of them is not ready;not one.
(2)在否定句后,延续否定词放在一个状语短语或状语从句前。
He wouldn't come to your house,not even the king himself should ask him to.
I begged him not marry the girl yet……not at least until he had known her for a longer time.
(3)有时延续否定词也放在另一个句子里,用两个否定句来否定同一个对象。
I haven't taken your umbrella;nor have I seen it.
We don't like idling.We never will.
从以上对英语各类否定的对比中,可以看出英语否定意义与表达形式的多样性与复杂性。因此,我们在英语学习中,对否定语句的理解不能停留在表层结构而望文生义,应该根据英语否定意义及其表达形式的规律,从深层把握其确切含意。